Service for Occupational Prevention and Safety

Vigevano Office

Viale Montegrappa 5 - 27029 Vigevano (PV)

Gianni SARETTO(*)

Lorenza CORNAGGIA(**)

Nicoletta CORNAGGIA(***)

Enrica GIANOLI(***)

SECTOR RISK PROFILES

- Footwear sector-

(*)Project Manager – Director of Vigevano Occupational Safety Department

(**)Project Researcher

(***) Manager Vigevano Job Safety Department

Job Safety Department tel. 0381 – 333533 – 584 fax 0381 – 333807

gianni_saretto@asl.pavia.it

Sector risk profiles

Footwear sector

Contents

1. Flow Chart

2. Sector Document

1.1 Geographical area considered in the survey. P. 2

1.2 The Vigevano footwear industry: production, social and historical characteristics P. 2

1.3 Population and occupational data of the geographical area considered. P. 3

1.4 Analytical data of the survey sample. P. 3

1.5 Description of the production cycle. P. 5

1.6 Classification and definition of general risks. P. 7

1.6.1 Structural safety and health requirements of workplaces P. 7

1.6.2 Electrical plants. P. 9

1.6.3 Lighting. P. 10

1.6.4 Microclimate and air conditioning. P. 10

1.6.5 Airing and ventilation of production rooms. P. 10

1.6.6 Risks of explosion or fire. P. 10

1.6.7 Noise risk. P. 11

1.7 Products and raw materials used. P. 14

1.7.1 Adhesives. P. 14

1.7.2 Activators and diluents for glue. P. 17

1.7.3 Finishing products. P. 17

1.7.4 Other raw materials. P. 18

1.7.5 Changes in the composition of solvents in the adhesives P. 18

used in footwear manufacturing.

1.7.6 Risk containment. P. 19

1.8 Occupational diseases. P. 21

1.8.1 Solvents and other compounds contained in adhesives. P. 21

1.8.2 Improper postures, repetitive movements affecting uppers limbs P. 22

(CTD) and handling of loads.

1.8.3 Vibration on hand-arm system. P. 22

1.8.4 Dust, especially leather. P. 23

1.8.5 Health surveillance and biological monitoring requirements. P. 23

1.9 Industrial accidents. P. 24

1.9.1. Estimate of contents of industrial accident. P. 24

1.9.2 Frequently occurring drawbacks common to much P. 27

machinery in the sector.

1.10 External risk. P. 29

1.10.1 Waste. P. 29

1.10.2 Air pollution. P. 29

1.11 Legislative references. P. 31

1.11.1 Workplaces. P. 31

1.11.2 Electrical plants. P. 33

1.11.3 Lighting. P. 33

1.11.4 Microclimate. P. 34

1.11.5 Airing. P. 35

1.11.6 Fire and explosion. P. 36

1.11.7 Noise. P. 36

1.11.8 Harmful agents. P. 37

1.11.9 Information, training. P. 38

1.11.10 Visual display terminals. P. 38

1.11.11 Machines and equipment. P. 39

1.12 Table summarising the risk profile in the footwear sector. P. 39

3. Documents on work stages.

q Modelling stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: modelling P. 2

1.1 Style creation stage. P. 2

1.2 Modelling stage. P. 2

1.3 Production of uppers. P. 2

1.4 Production of heels. P. 3

1.5 Production of soles. P. 3

1.6 Prototype stage. P. 4

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant. P. 5

2.1 Manual systems. P. 5

2.2 CAD systems. P. 5

2.2.1 3-dimensional CAD design. P. 5

2.2.2 2-dimensional CAD design. P. 7

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 9

3.1 Computer terminal activities. P. 9

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 10

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 11

Chap. 6 Legislative references and good technical standards. P. 12

q Cutting stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: cutting. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant. P. 3

2.1 Manual equipment. P. 3

2.2 Die cut systems. P. 3

2.3 Non-die cut systems. P. 5

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 6

3.1 Gouges and dies. P. 6

3.2 Manual equipment. P. 6

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 7

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 8

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 9

q Joining stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: joining. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant P. 4

2.1 Leather splitting machine P. 4

2.2 Skinning machine P. 4

2.3 Folding machine P. 4

2.4 Stitching machine P. 4

2.5 Eyelet punch/Riveting machine. P. 4

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 8

3.1 Risks related to machines. P. 8

3.2 Adhesives risk: glue joining. P. 9

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 12

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 13

5.1 Intervention on machines. P. 13

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 14

q Assembly stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: Assembly. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant P. 3

2.1 Machines. P. 3

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 7

3.1 Risks related to machines. P. 7

3.2 Adhesives: assembly gluing. P. 8

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 12

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 13

5.1 Intervention on machines. P. 13

5.2 Intervention on gluing operations. P. 14

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 15

q Bottom stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: Bottom. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant. P. 3

2.1 Carding or scraping machines. P. 3

2.2 Gluing machines. P. 3

2.3 Drying ovens. P. 3

2.4 Sole presses. P. 3

2.5 Machines for heel pre-attachment and nailing. P. 6

2.6 Milling machines for soles and heels. P. 7

2.7 Rough-forming machine. P. 7

2.8 Stitching machine Black. P. 7

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 8

3.1 Risks related to machines. P. 8

3.2 Adhesives: operations of gluing “bottom ”. P. 9

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 14

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 15

5.1 Intervention on machines. P. 15

5.2 Intervention on gluing operations. P. 16

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 17

q Finishing stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: Finishing. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant. P. 3

2.1 Brushing machines. P. 3

2.2 Irons. P. 3

2.3 Stamper. P. 3

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 4

3.1 Risks related to machines or equipment. P. 4

3.2 Solvent risk: cleaning in finishing. P. 5

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 9

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 10

5.1 Intervention on machines. P. 10

5.3 Intervention in finishing. P. 10

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 11

q Packaging and storage stage.

Chap. 1 Work stage: packaging and storage. P. 2

Chap. 2 Equipment, Machines and Plant. P. 3

2.1 Stamper for soles. P. 3

2.2 Lifting or transport equipment. P. 3

Chap. 3 Risk factor. P. 4

3.1 Handling of loads. P. 4

3.2 Stampers. P. 4

Chap. 4 Expected harm. P. 5

Chap. 5 Intervention. P. 6

5.1 Good technical standards recommended for loading and unloading. P. 6

Chap. 6 Legislative references. P. 7

Part 1

- Flow Chart -

1. Flow Chart.

Part 2

- Sector Document -

§1.“Sector Document”.

§1.1 Geographical area considered in the survey.

The city of Vigevano, once defined as the Italian shoe capital, is geographically located in the centre of a square area with Milan to the northeast, Pavia to the southeast, Mortara to the southwest and Novara to the northwest.

During the survey, in identifying the criteria for the inclusion of the sample and the geographical area of reference, the territory with the highest density of footwear manufacturing was identified. Besides the city of Vigevano, this included a group of nine nearby towns, one of which is a medium size city (Mortara) while the other eight are smaller: Garlasco, Cassalnovo, Gambolò, Tromello, Dorno, Cilavegna, Parona and Gravellona. Inside the selected area, with sufficiently homogeneous and typical characteristics, a complete, self-sufficient and integrated footwear manufacturing system was identified. Besides the firms for show production, there are also many other related firms (manufacturers of heels, soles, borders etc.) or satellite firms (production of machinery for shoe manufacture, domestic and international shoe marketing etc.).

This network may be defined as a local system, i.e. a production system spread over a certain area and consisting of firms belonging to various product sectors, all related to the footwear sector.

§1.2 The Vigevano footwear industry system: production, social and historical characteristics.

The first shoe factory was founded in Vigevano in 1866.

Later, in just a few years, numerous medium and large companies developed, specialised in this particular production and with a considerable number of female workers.

The sector further expanded with small factories, often set up by former shoe workers, and equipped with workshops specialised in the production of footwear accessories or in undertaken single phases of the production process.

In the early part of the 20th century, the first mechanical industry specifically oriented towards the production/repair of shoe production machinery was started. Other workshops changed their original activity to satisfy the growing demand for machinery and tools for the footwear industry. The early part of the century witnessed the development of medium and large tanning industries.

The development of the sector was so great that in 1911 shoe production became the major activity of the Vigevano economy, with 50 firms and over 6,000 workers (about 30% of the total working population).

During and just after World War I, thanks to the orders to supply the army, the production structures continued to grow. A similar expansion was recorded in the years after World War II, from 1951 al 1961, when the increase of factories and employees in the sector was, respectively 67.5% and 93.2%. There was major development in the sector, due to the solidity of the system, based on large enterprises capable of high quality production, and to the network of the small and medium size enterprises.

Between 1961 and 1971 there was the first considerable fall in the sector, in terms of factories and of employees. The factories fell from 838 to 593 and the employees from 14,045 to 8,649. In order to block the crisis, caused by the presence of new competitors, both Italian and foreign, the Vigevano footwear producers applied technological and organisational innovations, with a further decentralisation of the production process and of some tasks to more flexible external enterprises.

This policy is still evident, with local footwear production being characterised by numerous subcontracting enterprises and widespread home work, mainly by women.

In the 1970s and 1980s there was some recovery, with a stimulus of the diversification of production. The companies with high quality production and a highly qualified workforce (quality combined with constant demand) recorded success, and at the same time companies with low cost products also grew, many of them small and very small.

Finally, in the past 20 years, the changes and restructuring of the industrial district have had the following consequences:

1. A significant reduction of the number of factories, falling from 839 in 1981 to 702 in 1992, and a considerable fall in employment, falling from 10,000 in 1981 to the current 4.000 employees;

2. The rationalisation of production organisation through the decentralisation of the production cycle, which has also led to a considerable reduction of the average number of employees per company (12 in 1981 and 7 in recent years);

3. The requalification of production towards high quality articles n which the new competitors on the international scenario (Taiwan, South Korea) are not competitive;

4. The diversification of production towards related sectors, in particular footwear machinery, rubber-plastic accessories and artificial leather.

Despite this overall fall in the sector , the Vigevano area is still one of the most important footwear districts in Italiy, especailly thanks to the presence of all the related sectors, i.e. the accessories industry, the production of synthetic leasther, rubber and plastic articles and the footwear machinery industry.

§1.3 Population and occupational data of the geographical area considered.

The Vigevano district with major footwear production includes the municipalities of: Vigevano (population 60,384), Mortara (14,093), Gambolò (7,654), Garlasco (9,572), Cassolnovo (5,571), Cilavegna (4,416), Dorno (4,084), Tromello (3,123), Gravellona (1,994) and Parona (1,500).

The overall number of residents in this district is about 112,000, of whom 28,000 are employed in the manufacturing sector. There are 450 footwear enterprises in the area with about 4,000 employees.

§1.4 Analytical data of the survey sample.

In order to conduct the survey on the sector risk profiles, a sample of 20 firms was selected in the geographical area described above, representing the entire production sector, usingt lists elenchi of enterprises provided by the Vigevano Industrial Association and the local Chamber of Commerce.

The criteria of selection were as follows:

· Different size categories with regard to the number of employees. The sample extrapolated incldes small enterprises (< 10 employees), medium-large size enterprises (< 50 employees) and large enterprises (³ 50 employees);

· Different quality profiles for the finished product (fine, medium-fine qulaity, sportswear etc.);

· Geographical distribution, involving firms with factoreis located in the 9 towns near the city of Vigevano, included in the area concerned here.

Table 1.1 supplies an overall view of the sample analysed, in the light of the criteria listed above.

Table 1.1: Profile of footwear factories in the sample.

FINISHED PRODUCT	Employees <10 (percentage included)	10 £ Employees< 50 (percentage included)	Employees. ³50 (percentage included)
Fine and luxury footwear	0%	0%	20%
Medium fine footwear	5%	20%	5%
Medium quality footwear	15%	5%	0%
Sportswear	20%	5%	0%
Footwear for children	5%	0%	0%
TOTAL 20 firms	45% 9 firms	30% 6 firms	25% 5 firms

As already shown in the flow-chart, the production cycle of the footwear sector has been divided into the processing stages:

1. MODELLING

2. CUTTING/GOUGING

3. JOINING

4. ASSEMBLY

5. BOTTOM

6. FINISHING

7. PACKAGING AND IMMAGAZZINAGGIO.

On the basis of the recognition of these stages, Table 1.2 shows an outline of the organisation emerging in the survey on the sample of 20 firms (presence of the work stage inside the firm and number of employees).

Table 1.2: Profile of the footwear factories surveyed.

WORK STAGE	Percentage identified in the sample	N° employees Men	N° employees Women	N° employees TOTAL
Modelling	70%	26	1	27
Cutting/tranceria	80%	21	115	136
Joining	85%	11	271	282
Assembly	85%	120	29	149
Bottom	80%	125	26	151
Finishing	100%	14	79	93
Packaging/Storage	100%	18	4	22
TOTAL		335	525	860

§1.5 Description of the production cycle.

The footwear sector includes all the processing leading to the production of items used for footwear: shoes, sandals, slippers, boots etc.

The technological cycle is often organised with the separation of the work stages between the shoe factory itself and the smaller complementary firms such as those making uppers, soles, heels etc.

Home work is widespread in the footwear sector for the production of the parts composing the shoes and in particular the uppers.

Another factor to be taken into account is the quality of the article produced, if it is customised or mass produced, since this conditions work organisation and the materials used.

The following raw materials are used:

- Natural leather, synthetic leather (polyurethane, PVC etc.);

- Leather, rubber;

- Adhesives (latex, glue, solid glue consisting of hot melting plastic);

- Dye, paint, polish;

- Finishing solvents;

- Fabrics.

A shoe consists of two parts:

1) SOLE: part of the shoe placed on the ground, formed by three parts: heel, insole and the sole itself;

2) UPPERS: upper part of the shoe.

The production process starts in the cutting shop with the cutting of leather and sections of leather using gouges, with the preparation of uppers, soles, linings and accessories. Subsequently, in the joining stages the assembly and sewing of the uppers is conducted; stitching machines are used in the in the hemming shop to add any trimmings.

The operation of assembly on forms follows. With the use of nails and nailing machines the piers and the insole are inserted. The mounted uppers, after be passed ironing oven, are prepared for the application of the sole. This is applied with glue and with the use of a press; it is sometimes also sewed with a special stitching machine. A heeling machine is used for the final application of the heel. In the case of rubber soles, a special press is used to fix the sole and heel.

The subsequent finishing consists in the milling and rough scouring of the heel and using rotating machine tools; this is followed by the dying of the sole edge, heel and entire sole, the waxing of the sole and the cleaning of the uppers with solvents and/or brushes. The operations end with the finishing and of polishing of the articles. The operation is packaging and boxing.

The separation of the cycle, with stages undertaken in specialised firms, has led to a specialised classification summarised in Table 1.3.

Table 1.4 shows the single operations present in the cycle and the current name of the task.

Table 1.3: Classification of the main firms included in the footwear sector.

Edging plant, Shoe plant, Pier plant, Bias tape plant, Finishing plant, Form plant, Joining plant, Welt plant, Assembly plant, Insole plant, Sole plant, Heel plant, Uppers plant, Cutting plant.

Table 1.4: Shop/Stages of work/current name of task.

Department		Operation		Current name of task
Modelling		1. Design/preparation of model		Designer
Cutting		1. Cutting		Cutter
		2. Stamping, Eyeletting		Stamper
Joining		1. Splitting		Splitting machine
		2. Skinning		Skinning machine
		3. Assembly linings		Liner
		4. Assembly of uppers		Preparer or hemmer
		5. Folding		Preparer or hemmer
		6. Edging		Edger
		7. Sewing of uppers		Hemmer
		8. Application of trimming		Hemmer
		9. Gluing lining/uppers		Preparer
		10. Application of lining		Hemmer
Assembly		1. Application insole to form		Preparer
		2. Application of toe piece to uppers		Preparer
		3. Application of backpart		Preparer/Gluer
		4. Spreading glue on edge of uppers, insole		Preparer/Gluer
		5. Pre-assembly/assembly		Assembler
		6. Backpart application		Assembler /Shoemaker
		7. Pulling of lining		Assembler /Shoemaker
		8. Side assembly		Assembler /Shoemaker
		9. Counter mounting		Assembler /Shoemaker
		10. Nail removal		Nail remover
		11. Pounding		Pounder
		12. Counter application		Counter applier
		13. Wedge gluing		Gluer
Bottom		1. Cutting soles and heels		Cutter
		2. Carding or discarding		Carder/Discarder
		3. Cork filling		Gluer
		4. Spreading glue on bottom and sole		Gluer
		5. Pressing		Presser
		6. Black sewing		Sewer
		7. Rough-hewing		Hewer
		8. Milling soles		Miller
		9. Application of heels (glue or nails)		Gluer
		10. Milling heels		Miller
		11. Rough scouring		Sander
Finishing	1. Dying		Dyer
	2. Pumicing sole		Pumicer
	3. Dying sole		Dyer
	4. Polishing sole		Polisher
Trimming, Finishing	1. Cleaning and washing of shoe		Trimmer/ Finisher
	2. Application of over-heel		Trimmer
	3. Finishing		Trimmer
	4. Polishing		Trimmer
	5. Ironing		Trimmer
	6. Boxing		Trimmer
Storage	1. Goods loading-unloading		Warehouse worker

§1.6 Classification and definition of general risks.

Before analysing the risks characterising the footwear sector, viewing them chapter by chapter in each typical work stage, we can make an overall assessment of the “associated” risks, i.e. the risks common to all the tasks involved in the work cycle.

General risks

q Structural safety and health requirements of workplaces

q Electrical plants

q Lighting

q Microclimate and air conditioning

q Airing and ventilation of production rooms

q Risks of explosion or fire

q Noise risk

q Products and raw materials used (see chapter 1.7)

For each of the risks considered, we present the variables analysed and the results of the observations derived from inspections and the analysis of the assessment documents of the 20 sample firms. The legislative references for these variables are shown in Chap. 1.11.

The risk of “Products and raw materials used”, given the importance of the topic, will be discussed in a separate chapter (Chapter 1.7) and referred to in the various documents for the work stages.

§ 1.6.1 Structural safety and health requirements of workplaces.

Information on the following variables was collected:

§ Year of construction of the building where the firm is located, year/s of adaptation, year/s of extension;

§ Number of rooms equipped for shops and processing, forming the factory;

§ Availability of space in relation to the processing undertaken and the number of employees;

§ Number of doors and entrances, number of emergency exits;

§ Exit and emergency routes, presence of obstacles;

§ Transit areas, internal and external roads, presence of obstacles;

§ Toilets, assistance services, showers and dressing rooms;

§ Stairs, railings;

§ Floors;

§ Height and area of room, area with windows;

§ Basement or underground rooms;

§ Storage areas.

Results of observations:

The buildings housing the footwear firms visited are often older, on average about a decade, than the start-up date of the business.

This is the condition of 80% of the firms, while in the remaining 20% the date of construction and actual start-up of business is the same. This gap shows that in most cases, production was started in existing buildings, designed and used for a long time for different manufacturing activities, company sizes and type of plant.

The age of the factories emerges when we observe the proportions of the shops and/or their irrational distribution. The older buildings housing the firms often have an unsuitable size, either too large (production of the older firms housed in old buildings reflecting the past splendour of shoe production with large areas, now only partially used), or too small (premises located town centres or small rooms).

The survey has shown that in 65% of the firms there is a single room for production (in 25% two rooms and in 10% three rooms). This percentage includes:

- Firms undertaking a single stage of show production cycle, a sufficient condition since one room is used for just one work stage;

- Firms with several work stages, an improper condition since there are several processes with different risk factors in the same room.

Typical of this situation is the use of a single room for assembly/bottom operations and joining/finishing operations. The workers employed in the latter operations have a high indirect risk from adhesives and noise, which can be eliminated simply by the separation of the rooms.

Another significant example of inadequacy, also correctable by planning separate working areas, is the location of the modelling stage. This work stage, without significant risks when located in its own area, is often inserted directly in production areas, or in rooms communicating with the same (38% of the sample cases), thus increasing the risks.

The survey has also shown:

- Insufficient availability of work areas suited to the various workstations (10%);

- Inadequacy of the doors of production rooms; insufficient number and width (15%);

- Dangerous storage in work areas and presence of obstacles in transit areas in the firm (25%);

- Inadequacy of toilets and dressing rooms; no separation by gender, wrong location of showers and sinks not communicating with dressing rooms, lack of liquid soap dispensers, absence of disposable towels or alternatively of hot air blowers (15%);

- Inadequacy of stairs and parapets, absence of slip-proof bands, of parapets and normal railings with toe board (35%);

- No marking of window areas at entrance points to industrial buildings or near ad dangerous installations; no indication of maximum load allowable on raised floors, no marking of disused machinery (35%);

- Inadequacy exit and emergency routes; obstacles on escape routes or at safety exits, lack of signs required by law or of adequate lighting (35%);

- Uneven or inadequate floors (10%);

- Lack of space exclusively for storage (15%).

All structural drawbacks mentioned above can cause accidents. Table 1.5 summarises the accidents for the period 1992–1998 which, due to the type of material agent or dynamics, can be attributed to this category of risk.

Table 1.5: Accidents related to structural drawbacks in the period 1992/1998.

Material agent	Type of injury*	Accidents (n)	Average days of absence for temporary disability (days)
Transit area Openings in floors, walls Fittings, fixed plant	CONTUSION, TRAUMA, SPRAIN FROM SHOCK OR FALLING	15	11.9
	TRAUMA FROM CRUSHING	11	6.7
Stairs and walkways	SPRAINED ANKLE	4	20.25
	SPRAINED WRIST	1	30

*NOTE: non-serious injury, according to the definition in Art. 590 Penal Code

For convenient explanation Table 1.6 shows separately the data for industrial accidents not involving the use of machines or equipment, with the cases of accidents occurring outside production areas, while commuting and inside company property.

Table 1.6: Events occurring outside production areas for the period 1992/1998.

Type of event	Type of injury	Accidents (n)	Average days of absence for temporary disability (days)
Car accident Falling on flat area; slipping	CONTUSION, TRAUMA	3	229
	CONTUSION, TRAUMA, SPRAIN FROM SHOCK OR FALLING	3	35.5

§ 1.6.2 Electrical plants.

Information on the following variables was collected:

· Form B reporting installation ground plant;

· 2-yearly verification of ground plant;

· Statement of compliance with standards for plant installed subsequently to the date the law 46/90 came into force (13.03.90).

Results of observations:

20% of the firms failed to submit a report on the grounding of electrical plants on form B.

There was also little overall concern for the electrical risk, a conclusion derived from presence of obvious dangers (open electric wires, live cables protected with insulating tape), and from the widespread absence of the necessary signs (absence of signs prohibiting the use of water to extinguish fires near electrical plant or electrical equipment with voltage, no prohibition of the use of loose cables through rooms).

§ 1.6.3. Lighting.

The variables regarding lighting conditions considered are those indicated by legislation and good practice (Chapter 1.11).

Results of observations:

25 % of the sample firms failed to assess the lighting risk factor; the following was observed in the remaining 75% :

- Inadequacy of lighting systems: lamps without diffusion elements or shielding, neon lamps not protected against accidental shock (15%);

- Absence of emergency lighting plant (25%);

- Lack of plan for preventive and periodical maintenance of lighting plant (10%).

§ 1.6.4 Microclimate and air conditioning.

The variables regarding the microclimatic conditions in the work areas considered here are those indicated in legislation and good practice (Chapter 1.11).

Results of observations:

The temperature parameters recorded were within the recommended limits and therefore do not represent a risk for worker health.

§ 1.6.5 Airing and ventilation of production rooms.

The variables regarding airing/ventilation conditions in the work areas considered here are those indicated by legislation and good practice (Chapter 1.11).

Results of observations:

50% of the enterprises failed to verify compliance with standards regarding the airing/ventilation factor.

25% of the enterprises showed an insufficient amount of air turnover in the production rooms due to the inadequacy of the natural or forced air ventilation systems; this inadequacy, generally attributed to the failure to provide separate areas for smokers was solved in just one firm by:

- Providing an adequate area of openable windows;

- Providing a correctly dimensioned heating/air-conditioning plant.

§ 1.6.6 Risks of explosion or fire.

Through inspection and the analysis of the risk assessment documents pursuant to Art. 4 of Legislative Decree 626/94, information was collected on the variables for fire risk indicate in chapter 1.10.

Results of observations:

Considering the total of the firms with a “Provisional Approval Certificate” or “Fire Prevention Certificate”, 25% are not in compliance. The emergency plans provided, including the fire-fighting plan and evacuation plan, have shown the following:

- Inadequate or no training of workers foe the activities of fire-fighting and evacuation (10%);

- High density of machinery blocking exit from premises (5%);

- Lack of maintenance of extinguishers and hydrants (10%);

- absence of fire detection systems (5%);

- absence of various types of safety and fire-fighting signs, e.g.:

a) Signs prohibiting the use of water to extinguish fires in zones with electrical plant or equipment with voltage (5%);

b) Plans with water network diagram, indicating the places with fixed and mobile equipment for fire extinguishing (5%);

c) No smoking in risky areas (15%);

d) Prohibition of open flames in rooms containing inflammable products (5%);

e) Poor maintenance of safety and fire-fighting signs (10%)

§ 1.6.7 Noise risk.

The assessments of the noise risk conducted pursuant to Legislative Decree n. 277 of 15 August 1991 were analysed.

The noise found in footwear factories is intermittent with increasing loudness when the pieces are processed on machines. There may also be reciprocal interference of the noise produced by nearby machines.

The same workstation may thus have sound levels varying considerably over time.

There is also the phenomenon of interchanging work tasks, or in any case the alternation of different operations for the same employee, a factor also contributing to the greater variation of measures.

Studies on noise conducted in the past on a large number of footwear factories have led to the following general conclusions:

- The great majority of footwear factories have machines in the production cycle producing noise levels over 85 dB(A);

- Noise in the centre of the premises and thus the Lep,d values increase in proportion to the number of machines present in the room, independently from other variables (volume, structure of rooms etc.);

- The presence of at least 4 machines with noise rates over 85 dB(A) to cause an average noise media in the middle of the room exceeding 85 dB(A);

- Joining and finishing shops combined in the same working area with assembly and bottom shops, on the basis of the reciprocal effect of all the variables potentially affecting the noise level, lead to average noise levels in the middle of the room on average 5 dB(A) higher than the situation of separate shops.

The risk containment measures most frequently observed on machines of the sector were as follows:

1. The use of flexible joints on general and local ventilation equipment;

2. Hoods on machinery;

3. Mufflers on electric motors, compressors, fans;

4. Sound-absorbent barriers;

5. Separation of processes;

6. Anti-vibration systems under the base of the machines;

7. Anti-vibration insulation of individual workstations;

Results of observations:

Noise of work stages.

The assessment of the noise risk in the 20 firms surveyed provided 576 measurements on the noise produced in undertaking manual and mechanical work, in which:

· 26 measurements (4.5%) show a noise level over 90 dB (A);

· 85 measurements (14.7%) show a noise level between 85 and 90 dB (A);

· 102 measurements (17.7%) show a noise level between 80 and 85 dB (A);

· 363 measurements (63%) show a noise level less than 80 dB (A).

The measurements for the first group derive from mechanical activities, i.e. those involving the use of the machines listed in Table 1.7, with indication of maximum noise value:

Equivalent exposure levels Lep,d.

A total of 162 Lep,d were calculated with reference to tasks carried out in the various production departments. Of these:

- n° 4 values (1.8%) exceed 90 dB (A);

- n°60 values (19.75%) are between 85-90 dB (A),

and refer to tasks carried out in the following shops:

- cutting soles/processing bottom (1.8%);

- assembly (4.32%);

- bottom (12.34%);

- cutting (0.61%).

Table 1.7: Noise of machines

Machines	noise dB (A)
- Heel seat pounding machine	- 99.7
- Heel seat lasting machine	- 99.0
- Pounding machine	- 99.5
- Heel nailing machine	- 97.0
- Black stitching machine	- 97.0
- Eyeletting machine	- 95.8
- Leather milling machine	- 95.5
- Tack installer	- 94.8
- Lining nailing machine	- 93.0
- Sole stitching machine	- 91.6
- Sander	- 91.0
- Tack pistol	- 91.7
- Side lasting machine	- 95.3
- Heel seat & side lasting machine	- 93.0

The following emerged:

1) The shop with the highest levels of exposure to noise is the one for bottom processing, where two of the three Lep,d values exceeding 90 dB(A) are found. This shop has some of the machines with the highest noise level mentioned above, i.e.:

- Mills 95.5 dB (A);

- Black stitcher 97.0 dB (A);

- Side installer 95.3 dB(A);

2) In the assembly shop the workers are exposed to rather high Lep,d values, often due to the noise produced by machines typical of bottom operations located in nearby areas. In the case of the assembly shops located in the same room as bottom processing (5.5% of cases), there is a louder noise level than in assembly shops located in separate rooms;

3) The departments least affected by noise are modelling, joining, finishing and trimming.

It was observed that in the sample of 860 workers present in the 20 firms surveyed, only 218, i.e. 24.7%, were exposed to personal daily noise levels (Lep,d) over 80 dB(A).

This percentage of exposed persons is distributed among the departments as follows:

1) 53.6% are employed in bottom operations of whom:

- 23.5% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 80 and 85 dB(A);

- 28.1% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 85 and 90 dB(A);

- 2.0 % of employees exposed a Lep,d > 90 dB(A);

2) 29.3 % are employed in assembly operations, of whom:

- 22.8% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 80 and 85 dB(A);

- 5.2% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 85 and 90 dB(A);

- 1.3% of employees exposed a Lep,d > 90 dB(A);

3) 7.8% are employed in joining operations, with an exposure of Lep,d between 80 and 85;

4) 9.3 %, are employed in finishing operations, of whom:

- 8.7% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 80 and 85 dB(A);

- 0.6% of employees exposed a Lep,d between 85 and 90 dB(A).

In general, the noise data reported in the sector document show a low risk level.

According to the noise tests conducted, this is mainly due to organisational factors: during the day, workers undertake various tasks with differing noise levels and exposure times. Exposure due to the use of noisy machines is thus reduced to alternation with activities involving low noise levels.

§1.7 Products and raw materials used.

The products used in footwear factories, significant from the health point of view, basically belong to the following functional groups:

1.7.1. Adhesives used in the work stages of joining and conveyor mounting up to the gluing of the soles to the shoes;

1.7.2. Activators and diluents used for some types of adhesives;

1.7.3. Finishing products consisting of dye, paint, polish, finishes and solvents for cleaning, used in the finishing work stages;

1.7.4. Other raw and semifinished materials.

§ 1.7.1 Adhesives.

Adhesives may be defined in general substances designed to hold together two surfaces by specific or mechanical adhesion. According to the form they have and the intended use, adhesives are defined in practice with various terms. For example they are called “glue” when in the form of more or less viscous liquids, “mastic” when they have a semi-solid consistency and “sealant” when used to fill and seal.

The term “adhesive” will be used for all the products mentioned above. An adhesive is basically formed by a solution of certain substances (polymers and elastomers) in one or more solvents, with the possible use of required additives.

We can thus identify two stages, one solid and one liquid. The composition may be schematically shown as follows:

Basic substances. The basic substances determine the initial classification of the adhesives, also characterising the type of adhesive with regard to application, and though within a margin of variability in which the products may be different, they also define the formulation (certain bases necessarily require certain solvents).

We can distinguish adhesives on the basis of:

natural or pseudo rubber, natural latex or CREP, obtained by coagulation with the smoking of the latex of Hevea brasiliensis;

- Neoprene;

- Polyurethanes;

- Other resins, a group less often used and including synthetic resin and rubber such as SBR polymers, butyl rubber, nitrics, polyvinyl, polyacrylic, polyvinylacetate, polyamide etc. or derivates of cellulose such as nitrocellulose, ethyl cellulose etc.

- Hot melting products, i.e. solid adhesives made liquid by head or heat and pressure.

Widely used adhesives are those based on natural rubber and neoprene. Polyurethane adhesives are important and have been used increasingly over the past 20 years. Neoprene and polyurethane adhesives can also be used as “double component adhesives”, i.e. adding at the time of use a certain amount of the second component, the so-called activator (poly-isocyanate), which increases and improves the adhesive properties. Hot melt adhesives do not contain solvents and melt with heat and solidify again with cooling, thus joining the parts to be glued. The use of these hot melt adhesives is increasing, implying a desirable improvement from the prevention point of view.

Additives. Among the additives of the basic substances we shall cite only plasticisers of which the best known from the toxicological point of view is tri–ortho-cresylphosphate. Other additives such as terpene and phenol resins, metallic oxides (Mg, Zn), inert minerals (amorphous silica) etc. are used

Solvents. The function of solvents is to enable the even distribution of glue and, therefore to evaporate to allow the perfect adhesion of the parts to be glued. The choice of highly volatile solvents enables the acceleration of the gluing stages. The solvents contained in the products used can be classified in the groups listed in Presidential Decree n° 303/56, Article 33:

- Group 30: petroleum and gasoline ethers (paraffinic hydrocarbons with low boiling point such as n-hexane, cyclohexane, heptane etc.);

- Group 32: glycols and their derivates (ethyl glycol, monobutylether, monoethylether acetate etc.);

- Group 33: benzene hydrocarbons (benzol, toluol, xylol and similar);

- Group 38: halogenated derivates of aliphatic hydrocarbons (tetrachloroethane, trichloroethylene, methylene chloride etc.);

- Group 39: acetone and derivates (methyl-ethyl-ketone, methylisobutylketone etc.);

- Group 40: alcohols (ethyl, amyl, butyl etc.);

- Group 41: esters (ethyl acetate, butyl acetate etc.).

A classification by major groups of solvents commonly used is the following:

- Ketones (acetone, methylethylketone);

- Esters (ethyl and methyl acetate);

- Aliphatic hydrocarbons (hexane and its isomers).

With regard to practical application and of the inevitable use of some solvents, se can distinguish the following (also see Table 1.8).

Light mastics. Adhesives mainly used in joining, for linings and insoles; they have less adhesive strength and less resistance to temperature. They can be:

- Based on natural rubber. Until recently dissolved in industrial hexane (see following point), replaced by isohexane in the last decade, with n-hexane reduced to 3%. In the Italian footwear industry this adhesive is called “tenacio”.

- Based on neoprene, also dissolved in industrial hexane, recently replaced by isohexane.

Strong mastics. Used for gluing soles, bottoms and heels. The solid stage is represented by neoprene, polyurethane and, in some cases, by other resins. The liquid stage for neoprene-based or other resins consists of mixtures of various solvents: isohexane, ethyl acetate, methylethylketone, cyclohexane, petroleum distillates, industrial heptane, industrial hexane. For polyurethane bases, the liquid base consists of acetone and methylethylketone, alone or mixed with esters (usually ethyl acetate); this type of adhesive does not contain hexane.

From the toxicological point of view the percentage of liquid in the adhesive is relevant. Together with daily consumption of products, this value determines the quantity of solvents released in the work environment. Having the same performance levels for products with the same basic formulation, regarding risk containment compounds with lower solvent content should be utilised. There is a particularly harmful practice of regenerating old adhesives by adding solvents and/or plasticisers. Some artisan adhesive producers also report that in order to contain the end price of the glue, dichloropropane, a very cheap substance, is added.

Polyurethane adhesives. These have been widely used recently, being indispensable in the processing of some types of rubber soles. These soles require the interlaying of a polyurethane film without which we cannot achieve perfect vulcanisation. As already stated, these adhesives do not contain hexane. The greatest risk lies in the activators, added to the adhesive to increase the reticulating properties, formed by a mixture of isocyanates in methylene chloride (dichloromethane). For this adhesive it is indispensable to activate the parts to be joined; this operation is usually conducted with an infrared flash.

Table 1.8: Adhesives.

Type of adhesive	Type of Stage - Solid	Type of Stage - Liquid	Applicable sector
Natural rubber base	Natural rubber (poly-isoprene)	industrial hexane increasingly replaced by isohexane mixed with aliphatic hydrocarbons with low boiling point	lining assembly folding edging gluing of lining to uppers gluing insoles
Neoprene base	Neoprene (polychloroprene) + promotors (modified phenol, terpenphenol or coumarol resin) + (possibly) metalic oxides and inert loads	isohexane, ethyl acetate, methylethylketone, cyclohexane, petroleum distillates, industrial heptane, industrial hexane.	gluing sole gluing heel preparation bottom gluing welt gluing edge gluing insole
Polyurethane base	Hot melt polyurethane elastomers	acetone or methyl-ethylketone alone or mixed with esters (normally ethyl acetate)	gluing sole
Hot melts	polyamides of natural fatty acids polyesters (terephthalic acid + long chain glycols)	no solvents (100% solid adhesives)	assembly of uppers folding uppers application of toepieces
Water base adhesives	natural rubber or synthetic	water

Water-base products. Various attempts have been made to formulate adhesives or other types of product using water or water/ammonia solutions.

It is now estimated that a considerable percentage of the adhesives used in the sector (30%, according to some producers) consist of products with low organic solvent content. The adhesives with these characteristics are formed by a mixture in water/ammonia dispersion of polymers and synthetic resins (solid base). Polyvinylacetate resins and natural or synthetic rubber are widely used.

Their advantage consists in the high percentage of the solid component with respect to the volatile part, unlike solvent-based adhesives (respectively 40% compared to 20%).

They are used effectively on materials such as leather, synthetic leather, natural rubber, SBR and PVC. The most resistance to the wider use of water-based products compared to the traditional adhesive products is to be found in the following points:

- The evaporation of water-based products requires more time;

- They involve the introduction of various processing and work procedures;

- They are more expensive.

On the other hand, the general advantages are as follows:

- No need to install aspiration systems at the gluing workstations;

- No need for periodical medical checkups for the workers using these low-risk products;

- Reduction of the danger of fire, since water-based products are not inflammable;

- Reduction of air pollution emissions.

The formulation of water-based products enables us to obtain liquid or pasty compounds, according to the use required.

They can be applied with various systems:

- By brush, in joining;

- By spray, for placing linings in sandals;

- By immersion, for the treatment of polystyrene or polyethylene heels or wedges;

- On role spreaders for bands and soles.

The problem of slow drying can be corrected by the introduction of a transition stage of the glued parts in a hot air tunnel or reactivation ovens (e.g. infrared ovens).

There are technological advantages in using these products in various operations, such as:

- Application of small components, especially in joining;

- Folding of uppers and insertion of lining with natural leather;

- Application of toe piece with brush;

- Application of soles to uppers with spreading machine;

- Application of welts;

- Banding of heels and wedges.

From the health point of view we can point out possible risk regarding the ammonia and formaldehyde content which may occur in these adhesives, even if at minimum rates.

§ 1.7.2 Activators and diluents for glue.

The additives and diluents for glue are added at the proportion of 5% of the weight of the glue to dilute excessively dense adhesive.

These compounds consist of mixtures of the same solvents used in the adhesives. The most typical substances are acetone, methylethylketone, ethyl acetate, industrial heptane (n-heptane and its isomers). The methylene chloride (dichloromethane) is often used as an activator for the adhesives in two stages (generally with a polyurethane base).

§ 1.7.3. Finishing products.

These include various types of products used in the processing of the bottom and in trimming. They are usually based on synthetic dyes and synthetic resins in water emulsions or dissolved in solvents belong to the groups described for the adhesives. Solvents are also used in finishing. They can be classified as follows:

§ Finishing

§ Paint

§ Polish

§ Solvents

§ Various products no classifiable in the previous groups

Acetone is the most widely used solvent. It is sometimes used pure for cleaning the shoes and brushes and for washing hands at the end of the shift.

We can find polyurethane paint in the production of high quality heels. Per risk containment, some producers report the following positive trends:

- Use of water-base paint for soles;

- Elimination of pigment containing chrome and lead;

- Elimination of products classified as “Xn” or “T”, such as, for example, ethyl- and methyl-glycols replaceable with propylene glycols or propane glycols.

§ 1.7.4. Other raw materials.

Other raw materials used are:

- Leather, especially for uppers and linings (calf; half calf, i.e. lower quality calf; chamois leather, i.e. leather of variable origin tanned in oil; kid, tanned with chrome; paint; leather of various origin, also “inferior”, treated with shiny paint based on polyvinyl chloride; boot leather; calf leather “greased” after tanning; cow or calf leather for uppers of ordinary footwear and soles);

- Leather for bottoms (heavy cattle leather bovina tanned with chrome, tannin etc.);

- Rubber (natural rubber or synthetic elastomers for heels, soles and special footwear);

- Synthetic leather;

- Cotton fabric used as reinforcement material;

- Thread for sewing uppers and bottoms.

§ 1.7.5 Changes in the composition of mixtures of solvents in the adhesives used in footwear manufacturing.

In the period between 1963 and 1980, commercial or industrial hexane, thanks to the solvent properties and high volatility, gradually replaced benzol, the use of which was limited by the issue of Law n. 245/63.

After 1970, industrial hexane, which had become the most common solvent in the products used in the sector, started to be submitted to careful preventive measures due to its high n-hexane content, found to be neurotoxic and a cause of polynevritis.

A survey conducted in the Vigevano in the early 1980s on the composition of adhesives (99 products analysed) showed the following :

- The adhesives based on neoprene represented 67.7% of the adhesives used in the sector, with those based on natural rubber accounting for 10.1%. The two adhesives (77 products our of the 99 considered) thus formed 77.8% of the adhesives used;

- 100% of the adhesives based on natural rubber (lights mastics) contained almost exclusively industrial hexane with n-hexane in amounts never less than 35%;

- 89.5% of the neoprene-based adhesives (strong mastics) contained high percentages of industrial hexane (20-50%), mainly formed by n-hexane (on average 12.5 % weight of the solvent), mixed with other solvents such as cyclohexane, methylethylketone, acetates, aliphatic hydrocarbons.

Starting from the late 1980s, some producers began to replace industrial hexane with industrial heptane or petroleum distillates containing cyclohexane (80%) and other hydrocarbons C5-C7 with n-hexane under 10% weight of the solvent.

In the 1990s isohexane containing hexane isomers (2-ethyl pentane, 3-methyl pentane) and n-hexane under 5% became available on the market. This choice was favoured by footwear producers, although isohexane is more expensive than industrial hexane (about 30%), since it has commercial and image advantages with respect to regulations on the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous products (keeping n-hexane under 5% allows producers no to show the “harmful product” caption and symbol on the label).

Most adhesive producers thus replaced industrial hexane with isohexane. This replacement was especially easy for solutions of para-natural rubber, i.e. light mastics. For strong mastics, attempts were made to change the mixture of solvents in the direction of containing an n-hexane percentage under 5%.

In the early 1990s, the producers also reported a tendency to reduce the percentage of MEK and chlorides in the mixtures and to increase the percentage of acetone and ethyl acetate.

The most important fact in recent times has been the further lowering of isohexane, with a percentage of n-hexane not exceeding 3%.

A survey on adhesives conducted in 1992 by Perbellini and collaborators in the Verona area showed the following results:

- Considering, for 43 adhesives, the frequency of occurrence of given solvents and their average concentration (average proportion of a glue with respect to the mixture), it was shown that acetone (or dimethyl ketone), cyclohexane, ethyl acetate and methylethylketone were the most common solvents. Acetone was in top position for presence and average quantity.

- Isomers of n-hexane (isohexane) were found in 45% of adhesives with an average percentage of about 15%;

- N-hexane was found in 32% of adhesives with an average proportion in the mixture of 10%;

- Toluene is present in a low percentage (on average 2%).

To conclude, pollution by solvents in footwear factories has considerably changed compared to the past. In particular, n-hexane is found in a limited number of adhesives, representing less than 10% in the solvent mixture forming the volatile part of the adhesives.

A survey by Valentini and collaborators on the same topic, conducted in 1993 in the area of the “Brenta Riviera”, showed that the most the following mixtures were most commonly used, with reference to strong mastics only:

§ Isohexane, ethyl acetate, MEK, cyclohexane;

§ Petroleum distillate, ethyl acetate, MEK;

§ Industrial heptane, ethyl acetate, MEK, cyclohexane;

The survey also showed that the following mixtures were still used:

§ Industrial hexane;

§ Isohexane;

§ Industrial hexane, ethyl acetate;

§ Industrial hexane, ethyl acetate, MEK, cyclohexane;

§ Isohexane, ethyl acetate;

The authors did not mention acetone and aromatics.

§ 1.7.6. Risk containment.

The amount of solvents released and spread in the environment with potentially harmful effects is related to:

- The characteristics of the products used with reference to their toxicity rate;

- Use of solutions for pollution containment;

- Compliance with health and behavioural rules.

The following initial pollution containment measures are to be undertaken:

- Replacement of harmful products with non-harmful products;

- Replacement of harmful products with less harmful products.

The replacement of harmful substances with risk-free substances (i.e. not containing organic solvents) may be achieved by:

- Replacing light mastics with adhesives dissolved in water;

- Replacing light mastics with bioadhesive bands (example: in the parts folded and subsequently sewed);

- Using hot melt adhesives;

- Using animal-vegetable water-based glue instead of the light mastics (example: in the application of the insole of the shoe).

The replacement of harmful products with intrinsically less harmful products may be achieved by:

- Using products containing fewer solvents with respect to the average solvent content of the adhesives commonly used, which is 80%;

- Using products not showing the "Harmful Product" symbol on the label because they contain mixtures of hexane isomers with a maximum of 5% n-hexane (Ministry Decree of 16/2/1993 – “Classification and regulation of labelling of dangerous substances”);

- Using products containing increasingly lower percentages of isohexane to replace industrial hexane (containing n-hexane);

- Using products containing higher percentages of ketone and esters;

- Using products containing higher percentages of cyclohexane and heptane;

- Using products not containing aromatics and organic chlorides. For the latter, when their use is technically indispensable, the rule prohibits the use of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and the replacement of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene;

- Prohibition of the use of activators containing methylene chloride, which can also be replaced by equivalent less harmful products;

- Prohibition of the regeneration of aged mastics.

The following secondary pollution containment measures can be undertaken:

- Installation of aspiration systems in the application and drying of the glue;

- Reduction of the amount of glue used;

- Modification of the gluing procedures, shifting from use of brushes to those with outlets or rollers on machines with aspiration devices.

With regard to the installation of aspiration systems the following criteria apply:

- The conveyor must have a tunnel with panels in transparent material (plastic or glass), possibly sliding and equipped inside with aspiration inlets from below. The length of the tunnel must be able to ensure the drying of the glue before the pieces come out of the conveyor;

- The aspiration hoods must ensure aspiration of solvents from below, with an adequate aspiration volume for all the gluing stations and all the workstations where adhesive products are used;

- The drying stations where the soles, uppers etc., previously spread with glue are placed to dry, must be shielded and fumes must be conveyed outside;

- The working surfaces with use of solvents must not be covered with boards or similar objects (e. g. cardboard). They must also be constantly cleaned of any deposits formed;

- Containers of glue and products with solvents must be gooseneck dispensers. If these dispensers cannot be used, the containers used must be equipped with covers. The containers not in current use must be closed;

- The pollutant aspiration plant must ensure an aspiration rate of at least 0.25 m/sec. (Industrial Ventilation ACGIH ). Literature also recommends the value of 0.76 m/sec. (Irving Sax - "Dangerous properties of industrial materials"; Section 2: "Industrial Air Contaminant Control"). Also, some Health Service Prevention and Safety department recommend the value of 1.25 m/sec.

The following third level pollution containment measures can be undertaken:

- Raw materials not being processed, products and waste with toxic or caustic properties, must be stored in properly sealed recipients with the indication of the contents and proper label;

- Materials harmful to health or producing unpleasant ordours must not be stored in working areas in amounts exceeding those strictly required for processing;

- Whenever possible, employers shall undertake dangerous or unhealthy operations in separate places, in order to avoid exposure to risks for workers employeed in other tasks;

- Any contact with these materials should be avoided and workers supplied with suitable personal protection (gloves);

- Use of solvents for cleaning operations should be avoided;

- Personnel should avoid eating or drinking when they have product on their hands;

- No smoking in work areas;

- No contamination of food and drink.

§1.8 Occupational diseases.

Besides risks of trauma and of exposure to noise, the workers in the footwear industry are exposed to specific occupational risks related to:

- Toxicity of solvents and other compounds contained in adhesives;

- Using improper postures, executing repetitive movements affecting uppers limbs (cumulative trauma disorders-CTD) and handling of loads;

- Use of tools tansmitting vibration to the hand-arm system;

- Exposure to dust, especially leather dust.

§ 1.8.1 Solvents and other compounds contained in adhesives.

The processing stages requiring the use of adhesive or finishing products are joining, assembly, bottom, finishing.

Absorption of solvents occurs above all by inhalation. Some major toxic substances may be absorbed through the skin by direct contact. The seriousness of the risk depends on the concentration, the type of contact, absorption and intrinsic toxicity.

The effects are basically on the central and peripheral nervous system, digestive system (especially the liver) and eye and respiratory mucous membranes.

Acute action on the central nervous system is common to aliphatic, cyclic, aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons, and may involve depression or even coma for exposure at very high rates.

Neurological disturbance from chronic exposure can be due to the so-called psycho-organic, syndrome, described in workers subject to prolonged exposure to organic solvents (xylene, toluene, trichloroethylene) or even more to mixtures of solvents in the two varieties, with an organic emotional syndrome and chronic toxic encephalopathy. The former mainly involves reversible alterations of mood, irritability, depression, lack of interest in daily activities. The latter, which may be light or serious, involves clear functional alterations, in particular a reduction of psychomotor capacities (speed, attention, skill), of recent memory and personality alterations. These neuro-behavioural problems may also persist for a long time after end of exposure, with an impact not only on working capacity but also on everyday life.

Among the solvents which can induce peripheral neuropathy we can recall hexane and methyl butyl ketone. The polyneuropathy due to adhesives, attributed to n-hexane, was up to a few years ago the typical pathology of footwear workers. This ranges from mixed polyneuropathy, mainly motor, bilateral and symmetrical first affecting the most distal segments of the limbs, especially the lower limbs, to serious cases of qaudritetraplegy and flaccid tetraparesis in the most severe forms. This solvent is currently no longer present in significant concentrations and has often been replaced in the glue by other hydrocarbons considered less harmful.

The role of chronic exposure solvents in the development of chronic liver pathologies has been ascertained. The solvents proving toxic to the liver for chronic exposure are the “chloride” hydrocarbons (dichloropropane, trichloroethylene), while the toxicity of the benzene aromatics appears to be less serious. Ethers, esters and aliphatic hydrocarbons do not result in liver pathologies. Acute or sub-acute liver toxicity due to massive occupational exposure to solvents toxic to the liver are currently considered to be improbable.

Organic solvents prove to be irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. Inhalation of large concentrations may lead to irritation to the mucous membranes of the initial respiratory tract, with affects ranging from signs of irritative tracheobronchitis to possible occurrence of chemical pneumonia and pulmonary edema. Prolonged skin contact may have an irritating effect (rash dermatitis) and, by the alteration of the hydrolipid layer, may facilitate allergy outbreaks (allergy dermatitis).

§ 1.8.2 Improper postures, repetitive movements affecting upper limbs (CTD) and handling of loads.

Muscular-skeletal pathologies due to repetitive movements in the muscle and tendon system or to compression of peripheral nerves are frequently reported among employees in the footwear sector. These activities include:

· In particular, the operation of sewing the uppers with a column sewing machine, involving the resting of the elbows on the worktable as the habitual posture, repetitive movements of bending over and microtraumas to the elbow, has been correlated with the occurrence of neuropathy due to the compression of the ulnar nerve of the elbow;

· Operations of gluing and sewing, due to the repetitive characteristics, make a CDT risk plausible. There is a significant frequency of parasthesia affecting the upper limbs due above to the carpal tunnel syndrome;

· Other pathologies common to all those jobs requiring a sitting position for long periods of time are those affecting the rachis due to improper postures, as a result of the little use of suitable ergonometric seats for the jobs of preparation and hemming. Conditions of incorrect posture can also be due to the incorrect positioning of the folding and stitching machines folders in such a way as to require workers to work bent over the machine. This leads to backache, cervical pain, hernia of the disc and scapular-homerus pain.

§ 1.8.3. Vibration on hand-arm system.

Workers in the footwear sector using vibrating tools, especially the pounding machine and stitching machines, undergo vascular, neurological and muscular-skeletal lesions of the hand-arm system. These lesions taken together are defined as the hand-arm vibration syndrome, characterised by a secondary form of the Raynod phenomenon, a peripheral neuropathy mainly in sensitivity and chronic degenerative lesions to the bone and joint segments of the upper limbs, especially of the wrists and elbows.

§ 1.8.4 Dust, especially leather.

In processing requiring the use of tools such as the pounding machine, mill, skinning machine, carding machine and brushing machine, there is a risk of exposure to the dust produced.

The dust coming from leather, tanned skins and artificial leather contains irritating substances which may cause allergic oculo-rhinitis, asthma and dermatitis. Besides the allergy agents used in the tanning stage (chrome compounds, tannin, pigments, biocides etc.), the plasticisers used in artificial leather may sometimes cause these pathologies.

The dust produced in these work stages may cause acute irritation to the nose, throat and trachea; chronic irritation affecting the initial respiratory tract may also occur.

Epidemiological studies conducted in the past 30 years have shown that leather dust is the cause of cancer of the nasal cavity and nasal sinus.

This risk has been also investigated in research promoted by the Vigevano health authorities for the years 1968-1986. In this period 14 cases were recorded compared to the expected rate of 2.2.

Finally, we can recall a control case study supporting the correlation between the occurrence of spontaneous abortion and exposure to high levels (in any case under TLV) of organic solvents in female workers employed in the footwear industry.

§ 1.8.5. Health surveillance and biological monitoring requirements.

The products used in footwear factories commonly contain substances belonging to groups 30, 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41 of the table attached to Presidential Decree N. 303/56. Pursuant to Art. 33 of this Decree, workers using compounds in groups 33 and 38, besides the initial check-up, must have periodical check-ups on a quarterly basis. There is a half-yearly frequency in the case of risk for the use of substances belonging to groups 30, 32, 39, 40. The law also specifies that for processing involving exposure to more than one of the risks listed, as a reference basis, the greater frequency is required. It is likewise desirable, as highlighted by more recent trends in health monitoring, to adjust the frequency of medical check-up to the actual risk, adopting the instruments provided in Art. 35 of the same Presidential Decree

Specific rules for the periodical medical check-ups of footwear workers are contained in Circular N. 256 of 29/03/76 of the Ministry of Labour and of Social Security and in the notes of the Provincial Labour Inspectorate of Pavia for the same year entitled, “Rules for the use of adhesives in footwear factories and similar” issued in the same year, providing for the undertaking of health check monitoring in addition to the medical check-ups, including the biological monitoring of the persons exposed.

Biological monitoring of occupational exposure to solvents is generally conducted through specific urinary metabolites (example: 2,5-hexandione for n-hexane).

Over the past 20 years documentation has shown that the urinary concentrations of solvents as such are closely correlated with the exposure rate and can therefore be used for adequate biological monitoring. For water soluble organic solvents such as acetone, methylethylketone and methylisobutylketone, the ACGIH has proposed urinary concentrations to be used as biological limits of exposure. Exposure to acetone may also be monitored by the determination of acetonemia.

The toxicity of the solvent fraction of the glue currently used in the footwear industry has been considerably reduced with the replacement of the n-hexane (TLV =176 mg/mc) with solvents such as acetone, hexane isomers, cyclohexane, ethylacetate, heptane and isomers, which have a TLV over 1000 mg/mc. We should recall methylethylketone, with TLV 590 mg/mc. Above all on the conveyor, there is a risk of exposure to mixtures of organic solvents.

On the basis of the values of Equivalent Biological Levels (EBL) of the solvent chosen as the exposure indicator, recorded during the first biological monitoring, Table 1.9 shows a proposal for the frequency of subsequent monitoring.

Table 1.9 : Frequency of biological monitoring

CASE	FRREQUENCY
A. All the values are less than or equal to 1/2 of the EBL*	Every 5 years and in any case whenever there is a change in processing that substantially affects the risk assessed previously.
B. One or more values between 1/2 and the EBL	Annual
C. Value over EBL	Quarterly or less according to the case

*EBL (Equivalent Biological Level)

§1.9 Industrial accidents.

§1.9.1 Estimate of contents of industrial accident.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents / number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (164 / 860*7) x 100 = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998 and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to the one observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation, 7 years, is 19%.

Tables 1.10 and 1.11 show information on accident events after the breakdown of total data.

Table 1.10: Statistics of accident seriousness in the period 1992–1998.

Industrial accidents recorded in the 20 firms of the footwear sector surveyed by type of consequence Years of events: 1992-1998 Area: Vigevano-Lomellina
	Temporary inability < 40 days	Temporary inability > 40 days	TOTAL
N. of events	157	7	164

Table 1.11: Statistics for accident seriousness in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the type of event and material agent..

Industrial accidents recorded in the 20 firms of the footwear sector surveyed by type of event and type of consequence Years of events: 1992-1998 Area: Vigevano-Lomellina
Type of event	Temporary inability < 40 days	Temporary inability > 40 days	TOTAL	Material agent	Temporary inability < 40 days	Temporary inability > 40 days	TOTAL
In contact with	57	3	60	Machines	71	3	74
Pierced by	13	0	13	Stairs	5	2	7
Tripping	9	2	11	Transit areas	15	1	16
Fall in flat place	3	1	4	Equipment, Tools	36	0	36
Uncoordinated movement	7	0	7	Ground transport vehicles	2	1	3
Struck by	16	0	16	Dust	3	0	3
Crushed by	24	0	24	Plant	1	0	1
Struck against	15	0	15	Fittings, fixed plant	11	0	11
Hit self with	1	0	1	Shard	6	0	6
Driving accident	2	1	3	Thermal parts	1	0	1
Exposed to	3	0	3	Mechanical parts	5	0	5
Lifting with effort	3	0	3	Fixtures	1	0	1
Struck by	1	0	1
Falling from above	1	0	1
Tangled/hooked	1	0	1
Pierced self with	1	0	1
TOTAL	157	7	164	TOTAL	157	7	164

§ 1.9.2. Absence and inadequacies often recorded in many machines of the sector.

Absence of power supply disconnecting switch.

The machines must be equipped with a manual power supply disconnecting switch to separate the electrical equipment of the machine from the power supply.

The power supply switch must be of the following types:

a) A disconnecting switch complying with European standards EN 60947-3 (in the category of use AC-23B or DC-23B);

b) A disconnecting switch with an auxiliary contact with cutoff devices which in any case interrupt the power supply circuit before the opening of the main contacts of the disconnecting switch;

c) An automatic switch complying with European standards EN 609047-3;

d) A combined inlet/outlet plug for those machines with nominal current not exceeding 16 A and total power not exceeding 3 Kw.

When the disconnecting switch is not used as an emergency stop device, the lever must not be red; the colours black or grey are recommended.

Absence of emergency stop.

Each machine must be equipped with one or more emergency stop devices in order to avoid dangerous situations from arising or which have already occurred.

This device must:

- Be easily identifiable, visible and quickly accessible;

- Cause the stopping of the dangerous process in the shortest time possible without creating extra risks;

- Start up or at least allow for the starting up of some movements for protection.

Inadequacy of protection

· Fixed protective devices.

Fixed protective devices must be solidly secured.

As far as possible, they must not be designed to be in place if the securing devices are lacking. Their securing must be ensured with systems requiring the use of tools to open them.

· Mobile protective devices.

As set forth in the directive on machines (Presidential Decree 459/96) two types of protection are distinguished:

1. Mobile protective devices of type A which must:

- As far as possible remain attached to the machine when they are opened;

- Be equipped with a blocking device which:

a) Prevents the start-up of the mobile elements as long as they allow access to these elements;

b) Inserts the stop as soon as they are opened.

2. Mobile protective devices of type B which must:

- Be designed and inserted in the control system so that:

a) The start-up of mobile elements is not possible as long as the operator can touch them;

b) The person exposed cannot reach mobile elements in motion;

c) Their regulation required voluntary intervention (for example, the use of a tool or a key);

d) The lack of or the failure to function of one of the elements prevents or causes the stopping of the mobile elements.

§1.10 External risk.

§ 1.10.1 Waste.

Waste disposal is regulated by Presidential Decree N. 915 of 10 September 1982 classifying waste as urban, special, toxic and harmful.

Waste produced by footwear manufacture includes:

- Material discarded from cutting processes or, more in general, from mechanical processing of leather;

- Dust produced by skinning, carding and milling operations, collected in aspiration systems of with plastic or canvass bags.

The list of special waste includes leather and artificial leather, paper or plastic bags or sacks, cuttings and fragments of natural or synthetic fabric, rags and canvass, waste equivalent to urban waste and thus easily disposable.

Waste containing adhesives used in the production cycle is classified as toxic-harmful waste.

Producers of waste must ensure disposal at their own expense, directly or through enterprises or bodies authorised by the Regions.

Assuming compliance with specific technical and administrative rules, one or more sites can be created inside the perimeter of the plant for the temporary storage of waste, adopting all preventive measures for exposure to chemical agents, contact or in any case vicinity to the residue.

§ 1.10.2. Air pollution.

Presidential Decree N. 203/88, the implementation of the EEC directive concerning rules for air quality, with regard to pollution produced by industrial plant, contains the standards for protecting the quality of the air in order to protect health and the environment.

This decree specifies the following:

a) Plants which may produce atmospheric emissions;

b) The composition characteristics of fuels and their use;

c) Threshold values and guideline values for air pollutants in the outside environment and the relative sampling, analysis and assessment methods;

d) Threshold for pollutant emissions and the relative sampling and assessment methods.

Existing plants are required to apply for authorisation to the Region or Autonomous Province. Applications must include a technical report containing the description of the production cycle the technologies used to prevent pollution, the amount and quality of emissions and the project for compliance with standards.

In Lombardy, a regional law provides for the authorisation, in general (pursuant to Art. 5 of Presidential Decree of 25 July 1991), as an activity with reduced air pollution, of the operations of “Gluing of parts of footwear and leather articles with consumption of adhesive products not exceeding 100 Kg/day and 22.000 Kg/year”.

The Lombardy regional law describes the work stages and their pollutants, formulating the requirements shown in detail below.

Work stages.

· Mechanical processing (smoothing, rough scouring, scraping etc.) for the preparation of the materials;

· Gluing of the parts on worktables or with machines;

· Drying of the pieces in ovens.

Substances Pollutants: dust.

Requirements

Threshold values in dust emission from mechanical processing:

Max. concentration allowed: 10 mg/Nm³

This threshold value is considered to be respected, and consequently no analysis is required if the emission is controlled by a filter dust removal plant with the following minimum standards:

- Filtration speed: 1.6 m/min.

- Cleaning system: mechanical shaking with timer or counter washing with compressed air;

- System for checking filter efficiency (e.g. differential pressure gauge or equivalent system).

Mobile pollutant reduction equipment may be used as long as the emissions are conveyed outside the processing room.

Pollutant substances: Volatile organic substances.

Requirements.

No emission threshold values are applied when adhesive products are used in the amounts and with the characteristics listed below:

a) Use of products with a dry residue of 100% (hot melt adhesives);

b) Use of an amount not exceeding 7,000 Kg/year of solvent-based adhesive products as long as these:

- Have a solvent content less than or equal to 80% in weight, in the ready to use glue;

- Do not contain the solvents indicated in the classes of Table A1 and classes I and II of Table D of the Ministry Decree of 12 July 1990.

In situations when compliance with the above conditions is impossible, we can, however, guarantee:

- The non-use of products containing SOV belonging to the classes of Table A1 and classes I and II of Table D - Annexe 1 of Ministry Decree of 12 July 1990;

- For classes III, IV,V of Table D , the respect of the following threshold emission values:

Classes in Ministry Decree of 12 July 1990	III	IV	V
Max. concentration allowed (mg/Nm^3) Hourly concentration allowed per line (Kg/h)	150 0.5	300 1.5	600 3

Pollution reduction plant

Finally, when even the latter conditions cannot respected, one of the following treatment systems must be installed:

- Pollution reduction plant with active carbon absorption;

- Pollution reduction plant with catalytic combustion;

- Liquid type pollution reduction plant (only for water soluble volatile organic solvents).

For each plant the law specifies the technical requirements for assessing their suitability. The emission threshold values are as follows:

Classes: Ministry Decree of. 12 July 1990	I	II	III	IV	V
Max concentration allowed (mg/Nm^3)	5	40	150	200	300

§1.11 Legislative references.

§ 1.11.1 Workplaces.

· Emergency routes and exits: Art. 13 Presidential Decree 547/55 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 1, Legislative Decree 626/94, amended by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

· Doors and entrances: Art. 14 Presidential Decree 547/55 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 2, Legislative Decree 626/94, amended by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

· Traffic routes, danger zones, floors and passages: Art. 8 Presidential Decree 547/55(replaced by Art. 33, Para. 3, Legislative Decree 626/94)

· Height, area and volume: Art. 6 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 5, Legislative Decree 626/94, integrated by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

· Basement areas: Art. 8 Presidential Decree 303/56

· Toilets and sinks: Art. 39 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 12, Legislative Decree 626/94, integrated by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

: Technical Coordination of the Region. Document N. 10 –Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region, Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-subsequently t 3.11.6).

See Table 1.12

Table 1.12: Toilets and Sinks

1. Workers must have, near their workstations, rooms for rest, dressing rooms, showers, of toilets and sinks, with hot running water, if necessary, and equipped with soap and drying facilities.

2. Men and women must have separate toilets; when this is impossible due to town planning rules or architectural constraints, and in firms employing no more than 10 workers of different genders, separate use of the toilet by them is allowed.

Conclusion:

A. 1 WC + ANTEROOM + SINK up to 3 EMPLOYEES;

B. 2 WC + ANTEROOM + 2 SINKS up to 10 EMPLOYEES;

C. 3 WC + ANTEROOM + SINKS + DRESSING ROOMS DIVIDED BY GENDER from 10 to 40 EMPLOYEES;

1 more WC for every extra 30 EMPLOYEES.

In situations A and B, the anteroom may be used as a dressing room.

Antechambers with sinks or water outlets equal to the number of WCs.

Characteristics

The toilet and anteroom area must have a minimum area of 1 sq.mt., guarantee the normal movement of people and must be physically separated (in full height) from other rooms.

If the anteroom coincides with the dressing rooms, its minimum area may not be less than 3 sq.mt. .

Toilets must be heating, and comply with lighting and ventilation requirements.

The perimeter walls up to a height of 180 cm and the floors must be tiled.

The height must be over 240 cm. Faucets should preferable be of the non-manual type.

The total number total of toilets may be reduced to 2/3 when urinals are installed.

Toilet bowls should preferably be of the floor type.

· Dressing rooms and clothing lockers: Art. 40 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 11, Legislative Decree 626/94, integrated by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.11.6 and 3.11.8 and 3.11.9).

See Table 1.13

Table 1.13: Dressing rooms and lockers.

1. Rooms specifically intended as dressing rooms must be made available to the workers when the have to wear specific work clothes and when for reasons of health or decency they cannot be asked to change in other rooms.

2. The dressing rooms must be separate by gender and suitably furnished. In firms employing up to 5 employees, there may be the same dressing rooms for men and women; in this case the rooms for this purpose shall be used by personnel of either gender according to suitable preset shifts and agreed within working hours.

If there are more than 10 employees there must be separate dressing rooms for men and women.

When there are fewer than 10 employees, the WC anterooms may be used as dressing rooms.

Area: 1 sq.mt. per each potential user at the same time and in any case not less than sq.mt. 5.

They must be separated physically (full height) from other rooms, including toilets.

The walls shall be coated with waterproof, easily washable material up to a height of m. 1.80 from the floor.

There shall be sufficient space for double-compartment lockers for each worker.

· Showers: Art. 37 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 12, Legislative Decree 626/94, integrated by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.11.9).

See Table 1.114

Table 1.14: Showers.

1. Sufficient and appropriate showers must be made available to the workers when required by the type of activity or health reasons.

2. There must be separate shower rooms for men and women or the separate be easily connected.

At least 1 shower with anteroom, divided by gender, in relation to every 20 potential users at the same time.

The showers shall be directly connected with the dressing rooms or with the WC anteroom.

Soap, towels, hot and cold water must be supplied. The rooms must be heated in the winter.

· Canteen: Art. 41 Presidential Decree 303/56

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.11.10).

See Table 1.15

Table 1.15: Canteen.

A canteen shall be provided when there is a presumable presence of 30 employees during the lunch break.

Characteristics: space of at least 1 sq.mt. per person with a minimum size of 7.5 sq.mt.

Furnishing consisting of at least chairs and table. Heating provided. Height not less than 2.70 m.

Possibility of conserving and heating food. Possibility of washing dishes.

Prohibition of eating meals in work areas.

Prohibition of installing food and drink dispensing machines in work areas.

Prohibition of consuming alcoholic beverages (small amounts allowed in canteen).

§ 1.11.2 Electrical plants.

· Periodical verification: Art. 328 of Presidential Decree N. 547/55

: Ministry Decree of 12/09/59

· Plant safety regulations: Law 46/90

§ 1.11.3 Lighting.

· Natural and artificial lighting of workplaces: Art. 10 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 8, Legislative Decree 626/94)

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.4.47).

: UNI 10380

Natural lighting shall be provided with openings (windows) having an area equivalent to 1/8 of the floor area, 1/10 if at roof level.

The European standards in UNI N. 10380 supply, with reference to production activity in general, the values shown in Table 1.16:

Table 1.16: European lighting standards (values in lux).

Area or type of work	European standards
Warehouses	100-200
Places of passage	100-200
Coarse work	200-400
Average fine work (general lighting)	200-400
Average fine work (local lighting)	1000-2000
Fine work (general lighting)	400-800
Fine work (local lighting)	2000-4000
Very fine work (general lighting)	800-1200
Very fine work (local lighting)	4000-6000

With specific reference to the footwear sector the same standards provide the values shown in Table 1.17.

Tab. 1.17: Leather and footwear processing: indication of average working lighting.

	Coarse 50-300 lux	Average 150-500 lux	Fine 300-750 lux	Very fine 750-2000 lux
Industry: Leather and footwear	Tanning	Large cutting	Cutting, work on machines, dying, sewing	Precision work on small articles

§ 1.11.4 Microclimate.

· Temperature of rooms: Art. 11 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33, Para. 7, Legislative Decree 626/94)

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.4.47).

: Circular Ministry of Labour N. 256/76

See Table 1.18

Table 1.18: Microclimate

Temperature of workplaces between 20 1 °C in winter; between 25 and 27 °C in summer. Relative humidity 40-60%. Temperature difference between external and internal air no less than 7 °C.

In winter ensure a temperature of at least 16-17 °C.

The temperature of the rest rooms and toilets, canteens and first aid station must be between 20 and 23 °C.

Heating must be provided by indirect systems (radiators, hot air) and in such a way that the rooms contain no heat sources with a temperature over 60-70 °C (e.g. kerosene, gas, electric or incandescence stoves or methane boilers).

§ 1.11.5 Airing.

· Airing of enclosed workplaces: Art. 9 Presidential Decree 303/56 (replaced by Art. 33 , Para. 6, Legislative Decree 626/94, integrated by Art. 16 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

: Technical Coordination of the Regions. Document n°10 – Guidelines on Title II Legislative Decree 626/94

: Municipal and regional regulations for building health (Lombardy Region Local Health Regulations - Update Title III-1989-point 3.11.5 and 3.4.47).

: Circular Ministry of Labour N. 256/76

See Table 1.19

Table 1.19: Airing.

"The ventilation of production rooms and the use of mechanical airing systems must be provided by means of openable surfaces and with procedures set forth in the Municipal and regional regulations for building health ".

- Obligatory natural airing of work rooms;

- Direct natural airing must be achieved through surfaces openable with controls at person height, including the entrances, with no less than 1/12 of the floor area;

- Toilets must have windows at least 0.5 sq.mt. in area;

- The turnover of filtered external air must not be less than 20 cu.mt./person/hour (parameter planned for rooms with private use);

- New air intake must be from a pollution-free zone. Air flows must be evenly distributed, in order to avoid disturbing air flows (velocity of air in areas occupied by persons must not be greater than 0.20 m/sec.).

" …There must be mixed (artificial and natural) ventilation in footwear factories with at least 4 air turnovers per hour. Two turnovers are allowed only if it has been demonstrated that the concentrations of solvents are well under the TLV in the winter period”. Recommendations by the Hygiene Experts’ Associations regarding footwear factories suggest that the work rooms be equipped with natural or forced air ventilation systems ensuring a number air turnovers per person of 30 m³.

§ 1.11.6 Fire and explosion.

· Defence against fires: Art. 33 Presidential Decree 547/55, Art. 13 Legislative Decree 626/94.

· Prohibitions – extinguishing systems – evacuation of workers: Art. 34 Presidential Decree 547/55.

· Atmospheric emissions: Art. 38, 39, 40 Presidential Decree N.547/55.

: Ministry Decree of 12/9/59.

· Identification of enterprises subject to fire prevention inspections: Art. 36 Presidential Decree 547/55 and Ministry Decree 16/2/82

See Table 1.20

Table 1.20: Fire and explosion.

In footwear factories where there are general dangers:

- Smoking is prohibited;

- The use of open flame devices is prohibited;

- There must be suitable extinguishing equipment; this equipment must be maintained efficient and checked at least once every six months by expert personnel;

- In case of necessity, easy and rapid evacuation of workers from dangerous places must be guaranteed.

Fire prevention certificate:

- Footwear firms possessing more than 500 l. (0.5 cubic meters of inflammable liquid and/or fuel) - item 13 of the list contained in the Ministry Decree of 16/2/82 - and in any case those with more than 25 employees - item 49 of the list contained in the same Ministry Decree;

- Firms with a thermal production plant exceeding 100,000 Kcal/hour.

The certificate is valid for 6 years for firms with up to 75 employees and those possessing 500 l. (0.5 cubic meters) to 25,000 l. (25 cubic meters) of inflammable liquid and/or fuel; for 3 years if these limits are exceeded.

The footwear factories subject to the issue of the “Fire Prevention Certificate” and equipped with industrial chimneys which could present a danger, must be properly protected against lightning and checked every two years.

§ 1.11.7 Noise.

· Protection of workers against noise exposure risk during work: Chapter IV Legislative Decree 277/91.

EN 23740 series 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power levels of noise sources- Guidelines for the use of basic standards.

EN 4871 1) Acoustics – Declaration and verification of noise emission values of machinery and equipment (ISO 4871:1996).

EN ISO 9614 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power level of noise sources using sound intensity.

EN ISO 11200 series 1) Acoustics – Noise emitted by machinery and equipment – Guidelines for the use of basic standards for the determination of emission sound pressure levels at the workstation and at other specified positions (ISO 11200:1995).

EN ISO 11689 1) Acoustics – Systematic collection and comparison of noise emission data for machinery and equipment (ISO 11689:1996).

·

§ 1.11.8 Harmful agents.

· Protection from harmful substances: Art. 18 Presidential Decree 303/56.

· Separation of the harmful work: Art. 19 Presidential Decree 303/56.

· Protection of the air from pollution with harmful products: Art. 20 Presidential Decree 303/56 (amended by Art. 36, Para. 7, Legislative Decree 626/94 and Art. 17 of Legislative Decree 242/96)

· Limitation on the use of benzol and similar in work activities: Law N. 245 of 5/03/1963.

In the manufacture and repair of footwear the use of products such as glue, mastic and solid cement in solvents containing benzene is prohibited. The presence of benzene is allowed only as an impurity up to a maximum value of 2% in weight of the solvent; this percentage must be counted on the basis of the maximum overall amount of 5% in weight set for toluene and xylene.

· Use of adhesives in footwear factories, leather processing and similar processing: rules issued by the Pavia Provincial Labour Inspectorate in 1976

· Prevention of polynevritis in footwear factories: Circular N.256 of 29/03/1976 of the Ministry of Labour and Social Security

Workstations where adhesives and paint dissolved in organic solvents are used must be equipped with suitable local mechanical aspiration plants.

In particular:

- The conveyor must have a tunnel with panels in transparent material (plastic or glass), possibly sliding and equipped inside with aspiration inlets from below. The length of the tunnel must be able to ensure the drying of the glue before the pieces come out of the conveyor.

- The working surfaces must not be covered with boards or similar objects making aspiration inefficient.

Gluing machines must have an attached aspiration system; the workstations where organic solvents are used and drying tables must likewise be equipped with local aspiration.

- Maintenance of the aspiration tables: the work table must be kept free of any deposits formed in order to maintain efficient aspiration.

- Containers of glue or other harmful products: the containers used must ensure maximum limitation of the evaporation area, e.g. with gooseneck dispensers. In the presence of adhesives with two components, where dispensers cannot be used, containers with a cover and minimum evaporating surface are recommended. Containers must have the symbols and labels required by Art. 18 of Presidential Decree 303/1956.

- Containers of glue and solvents not in current use must be kept closed.

- Harmful raw materials being processed must not be accumulated in work rooms in amounts exceeding those necessary for processing.

- Any skin contact with these materials must be avoided, and the workers supplied with suitable personal protection devices.

- Ventilation of production rooms: suitable ventilation must be maintained with fresh air intake from a zone without pollution, without recycling.

· Classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances and products:

Law 256 of 1974 and Ministry Decree of 28/1/92

The producer must supply to the purchasing firm packages of the substances and the product duly labelled, and at the latest during the initial purchase, provide safety instructions for the substances or product.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 355:

Recipient used to store dangerous or harmful products or materials, in order to show the nature and danger of the contents, must show the symbols and labels required for each of them by the rules governing them.

This requirement is applied to all materials and products which are inflammable, explosive, corrosive and with harmful temperatures, asphyxiating, irritating, toxic, infectious, cutting or stinging.

The symbols and labels must comply with the rules set forth in Legislative Decree N. 493 of 14 August 1996, implementing EEC directive N. 92/58/EEC, laying down the minimum requirements for safety and/or health labelling at the workplace. The type of label is the one required for the labelling of dangerous substances or products as classified in Law N. 256 of 29 May 1974.

We should also recall that Legislative Decree N. 626 of 19 September 1994, in Art. 3, letter a), defines the use of warning and safety signs as safety measures.

· Dust : Presidential Decree 27 April 1956, N. 303, Art. 21

§ 1.11.9 Information, training.

· Information for workers: Art. 21 Legislative Decree 626/94

· Training of workers: Art. 22 Legislative Decree 626/94

: Ministry Decree of 16.01.97.

§ 1.11.10 Visual display terminals.

· Use of equipment provided with visual display terminals:

Title VI Legislative Decree 626/94

UNI EN 29241 part 3^

UNI 7367: 1987 Workstation: desk and chair, table for video terminal and chair.

General.

UNI 9095: 1987 Office furniture. Tables for visual display terminals. Sizes (minimum).

UNI 7498: 1987 Office furniture. Chairs and footrests.

UNI 8582: 1984 Chairs. Stability.

ISO 9241 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs).

EN29241-1 General introduction

EN29241-2 Guidance on task requirements

EN29241-3 Visual display requirements

ISO/DIS 9241-4 Keyboard requirements

ISO/DIS 9241-5 Workstation layout and postural requirements

ISO/CD 9241-6 Environmental requirements

ISO/CD 9241-7 Display requirements with reflections

ISO/DIS 9241-8 Requirements for displayed colours

ISO/CD 9241-9 Requirements for non- keyboard input devices

ISO/DIS 9241-10 Dialogue principles

ISO/CD 9241-11 Guidance on usability specification and measures

ISO/CD 9241-12 Presentation of information

ISO/CD 9241-13 User guidance

ISO/DIS 9241-14 Menu dialogues

ISO/CD 9241-15 Command dialogues

ISO/CD 9241-16 Direct manipulation dialogues

ISO 6385:1981 Ergonomic principles in the design of work systems

ISO 8995:1989 Principles of visual ergonomics. The lighting of indoor work systems

ISO 7730:1984 Moderate thermal environments. Determination of PMV 1 and PPD indexes and specification of conditions for thermal comfort

ISO 5349:1986 Mechanical vibration – Guidelines for the measurement and the assessment of human exposures hand transmitted vibration

ISO 2631:1985 Evaluation of human exposures to whole body vibrations. Part 1: General requirements

ISO 1996-1:1982 Acoustics- Description and measurement of noise. Part 1: Basic qualities and procedures

ISO 7779:1988 Acoustics- Measurement of airborne noise emitted by computer and business equipment

ISO 9296:1988 Acoustics- Declared noise emission values of computer and business equipment

ISO 2913:1978 Paints and varnishes

CIE 29/2:1986 Guide on interior lighting

CIE 44:1979 Absolute methods for reflection measurements

CIE 69:1987 Methods of characterising luminance meters and luminance meters

IEC 801-2:1984 Electromagnetic compatibility for industrial process measurement and

control equipment

IEC 950:1991 Safety of information technology equipment including electrical business equipment.

§ 1.11.11 Work machines and equipment.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 29: Special lighting

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 41: Protection and safety of machines.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 55: Parts and elements for transmission of motion

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 59: Gears

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 72: Blockage of protection equipment

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 77

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 78: Pedal control of machines

The rule, with reference to start-up controls of the machines (or of parts of them) by the pedal, in relation to the specific danger of being started accidentally (when the operator might easily press the pedal inadvertently), requires the adoption of adequate protection in the upper part and on the sides of the control. Presidential Decree N. 459 of 24 July 1996 (machines directive), in relation to the characteristics of the start-up control, requires manufacturers to make start-up possible only by the voluntary action of the operator.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 94: Cleaning and lapping machines

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 115: Devices for presses in general

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 116: Presses and shearing machines

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 117: Presses and shearing machines

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 118: Presses and shearing machines

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 132: Rolling mills, rollers, calendars and cylinders in general.

The dangerous zone to protect is the inlet, where harm to the operator’s hands by the cylinders must be prevented. A suitable protection must be provided on the entire inlet area, designed to prevent the operator’s hands from being pulled in.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 158: Machines with oblique edge cylinders

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 166: Dies.

Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 374: Maintenance and repair.

Legislative Decree 19 September 1994, N. 626, Art. 35, 36, 37, 38, 39: “Use of work equipment”.

The employer makes available to the workers equipment suited to the work to be undertaken, or suited to these purposes and complying with safety and health requirements.

The work equipment made available to the workers must comply with the legislation and regulations regarding the protection of the safety and health of the workers as applicable.

The employer shall ensure that for any work equipment made available, the workers entrusted with the equipment shall have all the information and training necessary in relation to safety.

Legislative Decree 4 August 1999,N. 359

CEI EN 60204-1 17.2.4

Lamp holder in insulated material (ref.: folding machine)

CEI EN 60204 – 1 6.2.1

Micro safety switch triggered by opening and placed on the protection carter of the electric plant

EN931 August 1997: Footwear manufacturing machines – lasting machines – Safety requirements

EN292-1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 1: Basic terminology, methodology.

EN292-2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 2: Technical principles and specifications.

EN294: 1992 Safety of machinery – Emergency stop equipment; functional aspects – Principles for design.

prEN547 – 1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 1: Principles for determining the dimensions required for openings for whole body access into machinery.

prEN547 – 2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 2: Principles for determining the dimensions required for access openings.

EN563: 1994 Safety of machinery – Temperature of touchable surfaces – Ergonomic data to establish temperature limit values for hot surfaces.

PrEN894 – 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Ergonomic requirements and data for the design of displays and control actuators – Part 1: Human interaction with display and control actuators.

PrEN953:1992 Safety of machinery – General requirements for the design and the construction of guards (fixed, movable).

EN954-1: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety related parts of control systems – part 1: General principles for design.

EN982: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Hydraulics.

EN983: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Pneumatics.

prEN1005 – 1: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 1: Terms and definitions.

prEN1005 – 2: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 2: Manual handling of heavy weights associated with machinery.

prEN1005 – 1: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 3: Recommended force limits for machinery operation.

EN1037: 1995 Safety of machinery – Isolation and energy dissipation – Prevention of unexpected start-up.

ENV 1070:1993 Safety of machinery – Terminology.

EN 60204 – 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Electrical equipment of machines – part 1: General requirements.

EN 60947- 5-1: 1992 Low voltage switchgear and control gear – Part 5: Control circuit devices and switching elements; Electro-mechanical control circuit devices

§1.12 Table summarising the risk profile in the footwear sector.

.

Risks for worker safety

Work environment

Doors and gates

Emergency exits and routes

Circulation routes, floors and passages

Work spaces

Stairs

Airing - Ventilation

Microclimate- Air conditioning

Lighting

Fire- Lightning - Electrical plants

Toilets and services

Machines

Risks per the health of the worker

Chemical agents- Dust

Noise - Vibration

Physical workload- Improper postures

Other

Organisational and management aspects

Organisation – Work regulations and procedures

Training/Information

Maintenance

Personal protection devices

Emergency and First Aid

Health surveillance

Signs

Authorisations - Protection of high risk workers

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: modelling.

The initial stage in the production of shoes consists in the design, in which the designers define the characteristic models of the season and current fashion.

In this initial work stage, considering the sample of the 20 footwear firms selected, 27 employees, of whom 26 men and 1 woman, are employed.

§1.1 Style creation stage.

Style creation may be undertaken by personnel in the shoe factory (if the latter has its own product lines), in which case the designer coincides with the modeller. Alternatively, designs may be commissioned to outside design studios or fashion houses.

The designers, on the basis of the latest fashion trends and their artistic personality, propose a new model of shoe, making drawings on sheets of paper.

On the basis of these sketches an initial industrial feasibility analysis is made, sometime together with the introduction of style changes deriving from production requirements and company know-how.

§1.2 Modelling stage.

The formers (i.e. those who create the first wooden sample, professionals who are generally found in forming workshops and rarely in footwear factories), collaborate with the modellers, and build a wooden form of the shoe in a sample size, based on style requirements and in respecting the anatomical structure of the foot.

A more complex procedure is applied for walking or ladies’ shoes. The designer or modeller in this case uses a large number of different forms and traces the style structure of the shoe on the form covered with adhesive paper or plastic shells which are subsequently flattened.

Sportswear designers (an easier process), directly make a drawing on paper (called the “flat shirt” or just the “shirt”), thus saving the time required for the flattening operation. In the latter case the forms are very similar, and the modeller may thus work “by memory”.

§1.3 Production of the uppers.

Whether the modellers draws directly on the form or uses paper, they must in any case make a flat model of the shoe, flattening the surfaces on which the lines of the design have been drawn.

This operation is followed by the so-called “stapling”. Starting from the basic model, after making the pieces which will form the uppers, with suitable procedures of size development (grading) and engineering (such as the addition of the assembly margins, the engraving of the references for stitching and gluing etc.), the modellers obtain the cardboard models of the various pieces of the uppers to be used for the production of the prototype, for the production of the series of dies and, finally, directly for cutting by hand.

§1.4 Production of heels.

Following the indications of the designer, the persons modelling the heel produce an initial wooden prototype heel to be tried on the shoe being produced. In this stage, as in the previous one of the production of the form, considerable time is required for the coordination of the modelling work, which usually takes place in three separate places: the shoe factory, the heel factory and the form workshop (Figure 1). Once created with the desired lines and proportions, and the production of the new shoe is decided, the heel die is cast. These dies are subsequently used to produce a series of plastic heels by an injection process.

§1.5 Production of soles.

The operations for the production of soles are undertaken in the sole plant, using the form to determine the outline of the sole needed for cutting the leather sole.

For sportswear soles sportive or made in general by injection, the procedure is more laborious. Once the prototypes (sample pieces for checking and series production) of the various sections of the form are made, a technical drawing of the new sole is made, to be used by the stamper to produce metallic dies for the injection machines. The production of these designs requires considerable effort, just taking into consideration the complexity of the development of the sole sizes, and all the more so if different materials or colours are used in production.

Figure 1: Firms involved in the process of design and production of shoes.

shoe factory

§1.6 Prototype stage.

Producing a prototype means producing the half pair of the new shoe. This involves the production of cardboard models of the elements of the uppers, manual cutting of the leather, stitching the uppers and the assembly of the shoe, following an initial production sequence planned on the basis of experience and the indications of the modeller.

The “bottoms”, heels and soles, are replaced with a wax and wooden model produced by export craftsmen, and once applied, give the final form to the shoe.

In each stage of production and in particular at the end, the “model” is submitted to a group of experts who suggest any changes to be made.

Chapter 2

§2. “Equipment, Machines and Plant”.

Currently this first operation is conducted in 70% of the sample firms using exclusively manual procedures and instruments, while in 30% of the cases these are accompanied by computerised design techniques (CAD systems).

§2.1 Manual systems.

The modeller takes the rigid form, complying with the structural characteristics of the model chosen, and covers it with white paper adhesive tape, paying great attention to ensure even spreading. On this, the operator uses a pencil to draw the profiles, stitches, tying and any designs used in the model. The paper shapes obtained in this way and reproduced in dies, i.e. shaped cutting forms made of steel, will allow in the subsequent cutting stage for the production of the design made on the leather.

§2.2 CAD systems.

CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) programs are software characterised by graphic interfaces facilitating the design stage of a new object.

Today, CAD applications are used in the first stage of the production cycle of shoes going from the creation and design to the operations of cutting the models or leather.

In this regard we can identify two main classes of CAD systems (Figure 2):

· 3-dimensional programs (CAD 3D) enabling the modeller to interact on the screen with a 3-dimensional “object” (an object in space), with its form, uppers, heel and sole, in a way comparable to traditional working method;

· 2-dimensional programs (CAD 2D) in which the process of computer design regards only the uppers, and starts from a slightly later stage, i.e. with the “shirt” already developed as a flat drawing.

§ 2.2.1 3-dimensional CAD design.

Identification of the form: the indispensable element underlying 3-dimensional CAD is the form, is the form, made of wood by the form-maker according to the indications of the designer. In order to develop the design stage, this form must be “introduced” to the CAD system through “digitalisation”, i.e. it is copies in binary form and converted from a real shape to a computer form. This stage enables us to convert the real surface of the form into a 3-dimensional parametrical mathematical surface on which the design lines are “drawn” and for building other surfaces representing the components (soles, heels, insoles etc.).

For this operation designing the surface, we use mechanical and optical 3-dimensional digitalising equipment (Figure 3), and go on subsequently to the style design in the traditional sense. The form must first be developed, with digitalisation in the required sizes, so that all the operations made on the basic form will be automatically transferred to all the other forms and therefore the grading of uppers, form, soles and heels will be totally automatic.

Figure 3: Cycle of shoe design with the CAD 3D/2D system.

	Production of single upper components by CAD 2D

Style design. The methods available for drawing the style lines of a new model of shoe using the CAD 3-dimensional CAD system are shown below.

· Drawing on a real form and digitalisation of the style lines.

Working in the traditional way, some CAD systems enable modellers to draw the style lines on the form or plastic shell and subsequently to digitalise them with the help of a manual digitalising device, i.e. to convert them into computerised form, and at the same time onto the flat “shirt”.

· Drawing on the form or video flattening.

Once acquiring familiarity with the CAD system and mouse, modellers may draw the style lines of the shoe directly onto model of the form displayed on the video. In doing this the modeller may turn and manipulate (enlarge or reduce) the image of the form as if they were working by hand.

Although work is mainly done in 3D, it is highly important to be able to check at all times the result of the development of the uppers (and of all its characteristics).

· Drawing on the flat “shirt” and digitalisation of the style lines.

The modellers manually flatten the “shirt” and draws the style lines on it with a pencil. Using a CAD 2D system, they subsequently digitalise it with a graphic system involving a mouse equipped with a pointer. At this point the modellers may decide whether to continue in 3-dimensional drawing, creating the bottom of the shoe, the sole and the heel, or whether to go on directly to the engineering of the uppers (2-dimensional).

· Computerised prototypes.

The term “computerised prototypes” means that we can see view the shoe just designed by the modellers before it is physically produced.

Usually, in order to present a new model of shoe to the customer or design manager, prototype must be made, i.e. a half pair is produced. This involves considerable logistic problems in production since a new job with top priority is added to the existing production plan.

Exploiting the graphic potential of CAD systems, we can draw all the details of the new shoe by computer and use colour printers to print an image of photographic quality.

The modellers have over 16 million colours available, which may be subsequently displayed in different tones, shifting the light sources illuminating the shoe in the computerised image. If they already have leather, or synthetic material or printed fabric to be used to make the uppers, they may digitalise these the texture characteristics of the material with a 2-dimensional scanner and show them on the prototype in the production stage.

§ 2.2.2 2-dimensional CAD design.

The term “2-dimensional design” refers to the stage of the production of the individual components of the uppers. As mentioned above, in advanced CAD 3D/2D systems this stage 2-dimensional stage is always integrated with the 3-dimensional stage, with shifting from one to the other at any time.

· Engineering of the “shirt”.

The point of departure for the design is thus the “shirt”, which is automatically obtained in CAD 3D/2D systems as the flattening of the surface of the form. In automatic flattening the modellers have various options available enabling them to obtain the best result in relation to the model to be produced. When just a simple CAD 2D system is used, the automatic design stage starts only at this point with the insertion of the manually flattened “shirt” in the reader on a plotter board. The “shirt” shows the folding margins and assembly references (lines and points), utilising mirror functions, offset (parallel shifting of lines) and cutting and copying controls.

Decorations, symbols and other items required for the technical and styling completion of the shoes can then be inserted.

· Separation of the components.

Once the “shirt” is completed, with addition of more important technological information, we go on to the stage of the “separation” of the components, i.e. the separation of the parts composing the uppers. Also in this case the operations can be conducted in a simple and fast manner, providing the system with inputs on the various curves defining the zones to be separated and leaving them the task of extracting the exact geometry of the individual parts.

We go on subsequently to the construction of the other components of the shoe such as linings, piers and toe pieces, always using the basic geometry of the “shirt”. In this stage we have also inserted all the references required for the simple and correct assembly of the uppers in the production stage.

· Development of the sizes.

This is the last stage in the engineering of the model, involving the complete development of the various sizes, similar to what is normally undertaken by manual or automatic pantographs.

The pantograph is an instrument enabling reproduction according to a range of sizes corresponding to the sizes of the shoes (from 34 to 41 for women and from 38 to 46 for men). It consists of a parallelogram with rods, either graduated or with fixed intervals, equipped with a leading point on one end and a writing point on the other. Laser cutting machines are used to prepare the model of shoe required, with the die pieces in rigid material defining the size and shape of the pieces of leather or fabric to be cut and then used in the product.

Figure 3: Mechanical digitaliser and style design.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

Occupational risks in the modelling stage basically regard health and are related to the use of visual display terminals in CAD design. In footwear factories where this operational stage is undertaken manually, no significant occupational risks have been found.

§3.1 Computer terminal activities.

The rapid spread of CAD system now also involves the footwear sector: 6 out of the 20 firms examined undertake computerised design of shoes. This figure will any case rise rapidly, as shown by the readiness and enthusiasm of the younger and more ambitious modellers. They have been trained in this job by an increasing number of courses for the use of CAD systems in footwear modelling. This innovation is less widespread in smaller scale footwear factories, linked to family traditions, in which the modeller, working in the sector for many years, are reluctant to introduce innovations upsetting their normal working patterns, creating problems and slowing down production rates.

The risks related to the use of visual display terminals for CAD systems are the same as the risks related to the use of VDT in general and can be summarised as follows:

1) Fatigue and disturbance in the eyes;

2) Problems related to posture and repetitive movements, especially if the workstations are not ergonomic;

3) Mental fatigue.

It should be pointed out that the use of computerised systems in the modelling stage of the footwear sector in any case allows personnel to develop their creative skills, continuously renewing their profession of searching for new models.

Chapter 4

§4.Expected harm.

The information deriving from accident data taken from the accident registers of the firms surveyed, there are no considerations regarding this work stage, whether the work takes place manually or with the use of CAD systems.

Likewise, no occupational diseases are caused by risks related to modelling operations.

Chapter 5

§5.Measures.

The undertaking of computer work for CAM-CAD activities requires the application of the ergonomic standards required for ordinary VDT workstations, with reference to Title VI of Legislative Decree 626/94 and good technical standards.

Results of observations

The analysis of the measures adopted to eliminate or reduce the risks deriving from the use of visual display terminals in the modelling stage, as shown in the check-list for the assessment of the documents collected in the 20 firms, shows that:

1. 5/6 of the firms using CAD systems have adopted the following measures:

¨ The employers, in the distribution of the work tasks involving the use of visual display terminals, have avoided as much as possible the repetitiveness and monotony of the operations;

¨ Workers have been guaranteed the right to have a 15 minute break in the activity if the work consecutively for 2 hours.

2. 2/6 of the firms have adopted these further measures:

¨ Adequate information and training for workers regarding the procedures for carrying out work involving the use of visual display terminals, the related risks and the measures for avoiding them;

¨ Use of suitable screens (antireflection, with a stable image, low radiation emission, adjustable position);

¨ Use of keyboards for data input with suitable characteristics (slope, space, opaque surfaces);

¨ Choice of work table with surfaces reflecting little light, sufficiently large and allowing for flexibility of the screen, keyboard, and accessory items;

¨ Choice of a stable chair, ensuring the user freedom of movement and a comfortable position.

3. Only one firm has failed to identify this risk in its assessment document, similar to the widespread position of many large Italian firms which consider video work for CAM/CAD as not being included in the scope of application of Legislative Decree 626/94.

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references and good technical standards*.

* List of legislative references in § 1.11.

Legislative Decree. 19 September 1994, N. 626, Title VI.

Legislative Decree. 19 September 1994, N. 626, Annexe VII.

UNI EN 29241 Standards part 3^

ISO 9241 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs).

EN29241-1 General introduction

EN29241-2 Guidance on task requirements

EN29241-3 Visual display requirements

ISO/DIS 9241-4 Keyboard requirements

ISO/DIS 9241-5 Workstation layout and postural requirements

ISO/CD 9241-6 Environmental requirements

ISO/CD 9241-7 Display requirements with reflections

ISO/DIS 9241-8 Requirements for displayed colours

ISO/CD 9241-9 Requirements for non- keyboard input devices

ISO/DIS 9241-10 Dialogue principles

ISO/CD 9241-11 Guidance on usability specification and measures

ISO/CD 9241-12 Presentation of information

ISO/CD 9241-13 User guidance

ISO/DIS 9241-14 Menu dialogues

ISO/CD 9241-15 Command dialogues

ISO/CD 9241-16 Direct manipulation dialogues

ISO 6385: 1981 Ergonomic principles in the design of work systems

ISO 8995: 1989 Principles of visual ergonomics. The lighting of indoor work systems

ISO 7730: 1984 Moderate thermal environments. Determination of PMV 1 and PPD indexes and specification of conditions for thermal comfort

ISO 5349: 1986 Mechanical vibration – Guidelines for the measurement and the assessment of human exposures hand transmitted vibration

ISO 2631: 1985 Evaluation of human exposures to whole body vibrations. Part 1: General requirements

ISO 1996- 1:1982 Acoustics- Description and measurement of noise. Part 1: Basic qualities and procedures

ISO 7779: 1988 Acoustics- Measurement of airborne noise emitted by computer and business equipment

ISO 9296: 1988 Acoustics- Declared noise emission values of computer and business equipment

ISO 2913: 1978 Paints and varnishes

CIE 29/2: 1986 Guide on lighting

CIE 44: 1979 Absolute methods for reflection measurements

CIE 69: 1987 Methods of characterising luminance meters and luminance meters

IEC 801-2: 1984 Electromagnetic compatibility for industrial process measurement and control equipment

IEC 950: 1991 Safety of information technology equipment including electrical business equipment

UNI 7367: 1987 Workstation: desk and chair, table for visual display terminals and chair. General.

UNI 9095: 1987 Office Furniture. Tables for visual display terminals. Sizes (minimum).

UNI 7498: 1987 Office furniture. Chairs and footrests.

UNI 8582: 1984 Chairs. Stability.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: cutting and shearing.

This work stage consists in the cutting of the natural or synthetic leather, using manual equipment or die cut systems or systems without dies, in order to obtain the various components to be subsequently assembled for the preparation of uppers, linings and other parts of the coating and trimming of the shoes. Shearing is undertaken to shape the soles, heels, the overheels and insoles.

There are various types of leather raw materials sheared or cut:

1. Natural leather: this can be tanned in various ways, in chrome (for the uppers), in tannin (for the soles) or with organic substances. Besides this, the leather can be died and/or varnished.

2. Synthetic leather: the most common types are vinyl polychloride (PVC), polyacrylic and polyurethane.

Manual cutting operations are generally undertaken by workers in the standing position, using simple equipment such as cutters and thin, sharp knives; by following the profile of the shapes already prepared on the leather, they can cut the component required. The tools are often supplied with a file for sharpening.

The activity of cutting/shearing is undertaken in 80% of the firms surveyed; in the other 20% of cases the stage is contracted to outside firms. The number of employees in the cutting totals 136, with 67 women and 9 men. Home workers are often used, and the survey recorded 60, of whom 48 women and 12 men.

Chapter 2

§2. Equipment, Machines and Plant.

§2.1 Manual equipment.

The workers use very simple tools to produce the pieces of uppers of the shoes.

The tools used in this initial work stage are:

- Knives, scissors;

- Cutters: for the cutting and trimming of various material (synthetic or natural leather). They consist of a cast-iron base with two raised parts holding a blade that cuts the material;

- Trimming press: gradually compresses the material to be cut between two parallel plates.

§2.2 Die cut systems.

Manual diecutters are the most widely used cutting machines. In most cases they are hydraulic. There are various types of diecutters:

§ Rotary diecutters: these are presses equipped with an arm rotating around a piston/or cylinder group moved by the operator, manually or automatically, above a cutting surface. The material is placed on this surface and the cutter is positioned. This is a pyramid-shaped steel tool with variable base, or a reversed cone, with a smaller base and sharp cutting edges (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Rotary diecutter with automatic shift.

§ Flatbed diecutters: these are the machines with characteristics of maximum versatility for diecutting. They have a large and easily accessible cutting bed (cutting power can be more than double those available on rotary diecutters) and are combined with large areas of the press. The principle of functioning is the same as in rotary diecutters, but in this case the press is mounted on a carriage equipped with a hydraulic piston. The press may thus be moved, manually or automatically, within a gate structure including a bridge over the lower cutting surface (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Flatbed diecutter with photoelectric barrier.

§ Mobile bridge diecutters: In these diecutters the press consists of the entire upper bridge (“mobile bridge”). Another characteristic is a surface that can be pulled out of the gate structure, on which the material to be cut and the dies are positioned.

§ Automatic diecutter: Automatic diecutting systems based on electronic control have been recently introduced on the market, specifically intended for the footwear industry.

§2.3 Non-die cutting systems.

Cutting is undertaken by moving the tool along the profile of the piece to be cut. This is defined as “continuous cutting” because it takes place with the continuous movement of the tool along the path. This type of cutting machine is controlled electronically (numerical control) on the basis of working parameters determining the precision and speed of cutting. Continuous cutting system, used as peripherals of CAD systems, are grouped in two major classes:

· Blade cutting technologies in which cutting is made by “fracturing” the material with a sharp instrument;

· Energy cutting technologies (laser and water jet) in which cutting is undertaken by concentrating a high density energy flow on the material to be cut.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

The occupational risks of the cutting stage mainly involve accidents deriving from the use of cutting tools.

§3.1 Gouges and dies.

The most frequent accidents recorded in diecutting operations are as follows:

- Slight cuts to fingers (phalanges, mainly the thumb, index and middle fingers);

- More serious injuries with amputation of phalanges;

- Injury from crushing of the hands.

These accidents often occur due to the inadequacy of the working tools or their wrong use, as well as poor maintenance.

Injuries involving cutting and/or lacero-contusion, with serious or very serious personal harm, and injuries from crushing, take place at a low percentage rate.

There may be risks of accidental contact with parts of machines or equipment.

§3.2 Manual equipment.

Inadequate training of personnel, the incorrect use of the cutting tools (knives, cutter or even scissors), the repetitiveness of the cutting operations are the risk factors responsible for the occurrence of accidents, in general not serious, such as cuts or abrasion of the fingers with temporary inability to work for 4-5 days.

The risk of cutting or piercing, caused by thin blades or needles and similar, has been indicated in some firms as the cause for potential infection risk, due to the possible presence of infective germs on unsterilised tools. In just two firms of the 20 surveyed this risk, deemed to be highly probable and the cause of slight harm, has been the object of targeted measures.

The accidents occurring due to the use of manual equipment in cutting operations can be prevented by adequate training of workers.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Since it is not possible to correctly calculate the annual occurrence rate (I.I.), this rate has been estimated using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents / number of persons exposed a risk *year) x 100

= (18 / 136*7) x 100 =1.89 %

A.R. entire sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information collected in the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed. The denominator represents the number of workers exposed to this risk, 136 workers employed in operations of cutting/shearing, with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to the one observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate referring to the entire period of observation of 7 years, is 13.2% (A.R. entire sector = 19%)

After breaking down this occurrence rate on the basis of the material agent we obtain:

I.I.= 11.8% ® cases of accident due to the use of equipment and tools

(knife, scissors, cutter, awl) regarding the stage considered;

I.I.= 1.5% ® cases of accident due to the use of gouges and dies (machines) on the total number

of the cases recorded.

Table 4.1. below contains the data derived from the survey, organised according to the following criteria:

1. Type of material agent;

2. Number of accident victims;

3. Calculation of the average days of absence for temporary disability.

Tab. 4.1: Accident data for the cutting/shearing stage.

Material agent (equipment, tools/machines)	accident victims (N°)	Average days of absence for temporary disability
Knife	6	10.75 days of absence
Scissors	5	9.6 days of absence
Cutter	4	10.75 days of absence
Awl	1	3 days of absence
Gouges and dies	2	27 days of absence
TOTAL	18	11.8 DAYS OF ABSENCE

No occupational disease caused by risks related to cutting operations were reported.

Chapter 5

§5. Intervention.

The manual rotary diecutters, the type most widely used in the footwear factories covered in the survey, must be equipped with shields or devices to avoid injury to the hands or other parts of the body of the workers by the punch or other moving parts.

The protection systems normally installed according to the type of machine or processing requirements are:

1) Photocells;

2) Double controls on the carriage, at surface level and retractable;

3) Bar sensor;

4) Emergency devices.

On the other hand, with regard to the use of cutting tools, the protection systems are:

1) The supply of tools of adequate quality, in good condition regarding cleaning and conservation. Rules should also require that tools be put away in their proper places;

2) Providing of adequate training and information for personnel;

3) Supply and use of suitable personal protection devices, such as gloves resistant to cutting and other harmful mechanical stress (gloves for protection against mechanical risks, UNI-EN 388: 94 – Official Gazette of the European Community N. 94/C 359/06 of 16.02.94).

Results of observations:

Among those surveyed, only one firm carries out cutting solely with manual tools.

With regard to the use of manual equipment, the survey has shown that:

· In 45% of the firms visited, the employers assessed the risk of cutting and provided the following requirements for these tools:

- Adequacy and suitability;

- Conservation in a clean state;

- Orderly storage in suitable places (shelves, lockers, drawers etc.).

· In 55% of the cases, the risk is not recognised and is not therefore assessed.

With regard to the use of mechanical equipment, it has been found that in 30% of the cases, the shearing stage is contracted to outside firms. When undertaken internally, the following safety devices are adopted:

· Photocell systems, together with double controls on carriages in 25% of the firms;

· Control with two hands and with person present (continuous pressure) in 40% of the firms.

Some diecutters requiring the manual placing of the dies between the two plates are equipped with dies about 30 mm high, not in compliance with current regulations.

It has been observed that in most cases the employees in the cutting stage, manual and mechanical, do not use adequate personal protection devices.

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references*.

*List of legislative references in § 1.11.

Accident prevention requires compliance with specific regulations as set forth in Presidential Decree N. 547/55. Title III of this decree contains general rules applicable to all machines or parts of machines, the use of which may cause danger of any type for the workers. The obligation of protection or separation applies for the parts presenting a danger even if the machine is off, e.g. the numerous machines equipped with exposed sharp cutting tools. In Title IV, the decree contains specific protection rules for certain machines. Among these, gouges and dies are mentioned. The general contents of the law were extended in 1994 with Art. 35, point 1 of Legislative Decree N. 626. With regard to work equipment, the law makes it compulsory for employers to make available to workers suitable equipment in relation to safety and health. Presidential Decree 24/07/96 N. 459 (machines directive), with regard to the basic safety and health requisites of the design and construction of the machines stated in Annexe 1, require that the machines must built to run, be regulated and undergo maintenance in such a way that these operations, if conducted under the conditions stated by the manufacturer, expose people to risks. Legislative Decree 4/08/1999 N.359, implementing directive 95/63/EC of the Council dated 5 December 1995, makes changes and additions to Title III of Legislative Decree 626/94 and Art. 184 of Presidential Decree 547/55, in relation to minimum safety and health requisites for the use of work equipment by the workers.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 41: Protection and safety of the machines.

The elements of the machines, when they present a danger, must be protected, separated or provided with safety devices.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 115: Devices for presses in general.

Presses, gouges and similar machines must be equipped with shields or devices designed to prevent the hands or other parts of the body of the workers from being injured by the punch or other moving parts. These shields or devices, according to the type of machine or processing requirements, can be formed by:

a) Fixed shields allowing the passage of material to the dangerous working zone, but not the hands of the workers;

b) Mobile shields for the complete protection of the dangerous zone, which do not allow the movement of the punch except when it is in the closed position;

c) Hand shield devices controlled automatically by the moving parts of the machine;

d) Devices preventing the descent of the punch when the hands or other parts of the body of the workers are in the danger zone.

The safety devices consisting in the obligatory control of the machine by two devices to be used with both hands at the same time can be deemed sufficient only when the machine is run by just one worker.

The aforesaid shields and safety devices can be omitted when the machines are equipped with automatic or semi-automatic feeding devices.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 116:

In small-scale mechanical work with small machines, if the application of one of the devices indicated in the previous article or other safety devices does not prove to be possible in practise, in operations of placing and withdrawing of the pieces being processed, the workers must be supplied with and use sufficiently long tools to keep their hands outside the danger zone.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 117:

The application of shields or safety devices, in accordance with Art. 115, may be omitted for similar presses or machines set in motion directly by the person using them, without the direct or indirect intervention of motor, and for the presses in any case operated with slow movement, as long as any conditions of danger are eliminated by other devices or systems.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 118:

Hand-moved mechanical must be equipped with a device to prevent repetition of the pressing action.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 166: Dies.

Diecutters requiring the placement by hand of the dies between the two plates must be equipped with dies no less than 50 mm high having a protruding edge, in order to allow the use without danger for the hands. The item of paragraph one is not compulsory when the application of dies on material being processed is made with shifted pressure plates and therefore not in dangerous conditions.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 374: Maintenance and repair.

The buildings and facilities used as work rooms or workstations including accessory services, must be built and maintained in a good condition of stability, conservation and efficiency in relation to the conditions of use and the job safety requirements.

Plant, machines, devices, equipment, tools and instruments, including protective devices, must have, in relation to job safety requirements, the necessary standards of resistance and suitability, and be kept in a good state of conservation and efficiency.

Ø Legislative Decree 19 September 1994, N. 626, Title III: Use of work equipment (amended by Legislative Decree 4/8/99 N.359)

The employer shall make available to the workers equipment adequate to the work to be undertaken or adapted to these purposes and in ensuring safety and health.

The work equipment made available to the workers must comply with legislation and regulation ensuring worker safety and health as applicable.

The employer shall ensure that for each piece of work equipment made available, the workers assigned to it shall be provided with all information and instruction necessary in relation to safety.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: joining or hemming.

Seventeen joining shops out of the total of 20 firms in the survey were examined, since in three cases this work stage is contracted outside. In the joining shops surveyed the operations for the work cycle described below take place, partially or wholly.

The staff employed in joining operations are mainly women. The total number of female workers involved is 271, while the number of male employees is 11.

Gluing operations are conducted in 19 joining shops, i.e. 94% of the firms undertaking this stage. Out of the 282 workers considered, approximately 30% use adhesives in their work and are therefore directly exposed.

The remaining percentage of female workers are assigned to tasks involving a sporadic use and low amount of adhesives, or never come into direct contact with the. There may in any case be indirect exposure to solvents present in the work environment.

In these departments workers without a fixed task but who replace or fill in momentary production requirements have been observed. These workers may periodically undertake tasks implying the use of adhesives, with direct exposure to the solvents contained in them.

Often the firms involve utilise home workers; 53 were recorded in the survey, of whom 42 women and 11 men. These workers, under current regulations, cannot be assigned to activities involving the use of substances that are harmful or dangerous to the health. If gluing is required, water-based adhesives instead of organic-based ones must be used. (L. 18/12/73 N. 877, Legislative Decree 9/09/94).

The joining stage involves the production of uppers, by the stitching together of the various parts produced in the cutting department, after gluing with adhesives and after any scraping and folding of some of the parts. The work stages can be summarised as follows:

· Splitting: the pieces of the uppers are brought to the required even thickness using splitting machines.

· Skinning: adjustable skinning machines are used to thin the edges of the pieces of the uppers to allow for subsequent folding or joining of different pieces without increasing thickness.

· Assembly lining: this is achieved with special stitching machines and sometimes the gluing of edges and stitching.

· Glue spreading: undertaken manually by the hemmers or preparers.

· Folding: the edges of the uppers around the upper edge of the shoe are folded and glued, then sewn with a folding machine.

· Hemming: this involves the application of a strip of leather around the upper edge of the uppers by and/or machine cementing and sewing (hemming machine).

· Stitching of the uppers: the uppers previously assembled are stitched and glued in some points.

· Application of tape: a cloth tape 1-2 cm wide is glued inside the uppers on the joints to reinforce them, especially on the rear joint. Another type of tape, 0.3- 0.4 cm wide, is placed inside the folding.

· Application of eyelets: the eyelets are inserted in the uppers with the machine to apply eyelets.

· Gluing of lining on uppers, stitching of lining on uppers: made along the edges (lining insertion) with adhesive or stitching machines.

Chapter 2

§2. Machines, equipment and tools.

§2.1 Leather splitting machine.

This is a machine used to cut (Fig. 1).

The cutting is performed by a rotating blade device set into motion by a motor and transmission belt. Conveyance and loading of the material are controlled by a different motor.

§2.2 Skinning machine.

This is a machine used to thin the edges of the uppers (Fig. 2). The work is done by a blade installed on a pulley, next to a conveyor roller to move the material. The skinning machine is usually powered by a motor using a transmission belt. In detail: the motor transmits movement to the blade which rotates and performs the skinning; a second transmission belt operates the roller for the conveying and loading of the material to be processed.

§2.3 Folding machine.

This is a machine used to fold the skinned edges of the uppers and to secure them with glue (Fig. 3). In some cases a nylon thread in inserted as reinforcement inside the folded edge. There are folding machines designed to perform programmed thermo-gluing; the settings of all the folding mechanisms are made by servocontrols through the operator console. With these folding machines, expert personnel can achieve a high working speed (3000 revs/min.).

§2.4 Stitching machine.

Stitching is performed with various types of stitching machines. The most widely used machines are flat stitching machines, for the parts that can laid on a flat surface, or column stitching machines for sewing tubular parts. One or more needles can be used (Fig. 4).

§2.5 Machine to apply eyelets/Riveting machine.

Used for the securing of hooks, rivets, eyelets and buttons, the machine is designed for the application of a row of eyelets on a section of the uppers, with the possibility of bypassing the loading device in order to obtain just the hole for shoelaces (Fig. 5). The machine can be have programmed running or be hand controlled.

Figure 1: Leather splitting machine.

Figure 2. Skinning machine.

Figure 3: Folding machine.

Figure 4: Stitching machine.

Figure 5: Machine to apply eyelets.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

§3.1 Risks related to machines.

The characteristic risks of the joining stages involve accidents related to the use of the machines described above. Personnel often suffer from hand injuries, such as cutting or crushing, due to wrong management of these machines

¨ Skinning machine.

Due to work requirements, at the current state of technology, is not possible to completely protect the working area situated between the part consisting of the pin, blade and transport roller.

Especially when personnel fail to pay attention to the use of the machine, they may suffer from slight injuries such as cuts on the fingers or hand.

¨ Splitting machine.

During manual insertion of material inside the machine, the blade set may catch the fingers of the operators and injure them. Measures such as the replacement of worn out blades may, when undertaken by inexpert personnel, lead to cuts on their hands.

¨ Stitching machine.

The risks detected consist in possible injuries from piercing of fingers, due to the movement of the needle, often during the operations of replacement of worn out needles. At the current state of technology, the stitching zone cannot be completely protected. It has been found that the use of protective devices such as protection shields or finger guards not properly manufactured and installed can increase the accident risk.

Local lighting can facilitate operations and prevent excessive eye fatigue.

¨ Folding machine.

Since no protective device can be placed in the folding zone, operators are exposed to the risk of cuts to their fingers. Likewise, when gluing is performed at the same time, personnel may suffer burns due to contact with the heating area of the glue.

Results of observations on risks related to machines:

25% of the risk assessment documents collected in the 20 firms show that:

· The moving parts of the machines used for work are not always completely shielded due to the design, construction and/or location.

The suggested measures regard suitable shielding of all unprotected moving parts.

In particular, there should be fixed protection located at a sufficient distance from the danger zone or protective devices guaranteeing shielding of moving parts.

If this does not prove possible, the danger should be indicated; it is compulsory to provide the personnel working there with information and training.

10% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· Fixed protection, in case of opening, remain correctly attached to the machine;

· The parts for moving and stopping motors are not located outside the danger zone; their manipulating involves extra risks or incorrect postures;

· There are no instruction manuals specifying how to safely undertake specific operations on the machine: tuning, functioning, maintenance, cleaning;

· There are no mobile protection devices for eliminating the risk of being struck by expelled materials.

20% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· Removal of mobile protection is not always associated with mechanisms causing the shutdown and preventing the start-up of the machine. The improvement measures stated in the assessment documents mention the need to subordinate all mobile protection devices to micro safety switches to stop the functioning of the machine or block the start-up, if the protection devices are opened;

· The on and off switches of motors and machines are not always clearly visible with the lack of clear labels or symbols enabling personnel to identify them.

25% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There are no clearly visible signs with the explicit prohibition to clean, oil, grease, repair or manually set the parts of the machines while running;

5% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There is no formal preventive and periodical maintenance plan for all the machinery;

· Machinery not in use is not marked and put aside;

· There is a risk of accidental contact with parts of machines or equipment;

· Machine axles protruding from the supports for more than ¼ of their diameter are not adequately protected by a cover secured to parts of the machine not subject to movement;

· There are no mobile protection devices on the machines;

· There is no adjustable protection limiting access to the work areas, requiring the intervention of the operator in their vicinity;

· Power supply cut-off and subsequent return does not trigger the automatic start-up of the machine.

§3.2 The adhesives risk: gluing operations in joining.

In joining various operations are conducted involving the use of adhesives with a potential risk due to exposure to solvents. We can recall the following types of work.

· Assembly lining: possible gluing of edges and stitching.

· Glue spreading: undertaken manually by hemmers or preparers.

· Folding: the edge of the uppers around the neck of the shoe (upper edge) is folded and glued, and then sewn by a folding machine.

· Hemming: this consists in the application of a strip of leather on the upper edge of the uppers by manual and/or machine gluing and stitching (generally done by female workers known as hemmers).

· Stitching of uppers: the uppers assembled previously are stitched and in some points glued.

· Application of tape: a cloth tape is glued on the inside of the uppers or inside the folding.

· Gluing of the lining on uppers.

Folding is sometimes performed with the help of folding machine, equipped with a system for feeding the adhesive, generally by a hot melt process.

See the chapter on associated risks for general information on the adhesives used in the sector.

There follow data on the observations made during the joining work stage.

Results of the survey with reference to product composition:

The products have been classified on the basis of the following criteria:

A. Nature of the solid phase;

¨ Natural rubber-based adhesives;

¨ Neoprene-based adhesives;

¨ Polyurethane-based adhesives;

¨ Adhesives based on other resins.

B. Nature of the liquid phase distinguishing:

¨ Organic solvents;

¨ Water or ammonia-based solutions;

Finally, hot melt adhesives were considered.

During the survey the toxicity reports for 17 adhesives used in the joining stage were examined. On the basis of the classifications described above, the following distribution was obtained:

- Total adhesives in organic solvent solution: N. 8 of which

- N. 5 natural rubber-based;

- N. 2 neoprene-based;

- N. 1 based on other types of rubber and/or resins.

With regard to composition, these adhesives have the following characteristics:

¨ They contain N-hexane and isomers with percentages varying between 2.5-4.5%;

¨ They contain isohexane with percentages between 67% and 85%;

¨ They contain cyclohexane (maximum percentage 18%), ethyl acetate (maximum percentage 78%) and acetone (maximum percentage 45%).

The liquid phase composed of organic solvents varies from a minimum of 80% to a maximum of 91%.

These products are used in 9 joining shops out of the 17 surveyed (i.e. 53%), generally as adhesives in the assembly of uppers.

- Total water-based adhesives: N. 2

Polyvinyl acetate-based adhesives.

Only one firm (i.e. 5.8%) uses these products in the operations inserting the lining, folding, placement and coupling of the reinforcement of the uppers. In some cases the water-based products are accompanied by solvent-based adhesives.

- Total hot melt adhesives, solid: N. 7

In 7 joining shops (41.2%) folding operations are conducted with folding machines "loaded" with hot melt adhesives.

Results of the survey regarding the use of less harmful adhesives:

With regard to the replacement of solvent-based products by lower risk or risk-free adhesives, the following conclusions emerge:

- A good use of hot melt adhesives in the folding operation;

- Moderate use of water-based adhesives (used in only one joining shop);

- No use of bi-adhesive tape;

- No product contains less than 80% organic solvents;

- Generalised use of products not bearing the "Harmful product" symbol on the label because they contain mixtures of hexane isomers with a maximum of 5% n-hexane (Ministry Decree 16/2/1993 - classification and regulation of the labelling of dangerous substances);

- Generalised use of products containing increasingly high percentages of isohexane as a replacement of industrial hexane (containing n-hexane);

- Moderate use of products containing higher percentages of keytone, esters, cyclohexane and heptane (it should be considered that in joining, greater amounts of light mastic are used, and this necessarily contains a high percentage of industrial hexane, replaceable only by isohexane);

- No use of products containing aromatics and organic chlorides.

Results of the survey regarding risk containment measures.

For an evaluation of these aspects the following points were examined:

¨ Presence/absence of aspiration hoods;

¨ Suitability of aspiration hoods available;

¨ Suitability of adhesive containers.

Presence of aspiration hoods

Gluing operations are conducted in 94% of the firms that perform the joining stage.

Considering the total workstations using adhesives, aspiration hoods are present in 55% of cases.

Out of the 17 joining shops examined, 8 situations, i.e. 47%, have complete hoods; in 2 cases there is a complete absence of aspiration systems.

Only 12.5% of the hemming workstations using adhesives have an aspiration vent located on the worktable or connected to the stitching machine.

Suitability of aspiration of the hoods installed

The hoods installed on the gluing tables are suitable in 55% of cases. For most hoods, non-compliance is due to overhead aspiration and the absence of a grilled surface (a simple aspiration vent located on the work table).

The suitable hoods have the following features:

- 57% have lower aspiration, 28% lateral aspiration and 15% front aspiration.

With regard to their maintenance and cleaning, it has been observed that:

- Only 12.5% of the aspiration hoods have an adequate level of cleaning and management of the grilled surface.

Use of suitable containers for glue (gooseneck)

In 15% of the firms there is the complete presence of suitable recipients for products (dispensers with reduced evaporating surface). On average, considering the total number of observations, about 50% of the containers were suitable.

In no case do the workers involved in gluing operations wear the personal protection devices (gloves) made available in order to avoid skin contact with the products.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents / number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (10 / 282*7) x 100 = 0.5%

A.R. whole sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information from the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed, and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk, 282 (229 employees and 53 at home) workers employed in joining operations with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to the one observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation, 7 years, is 3.5% (A.R. whole sector = 19%).

The following table (Tab. 4.1) summarises the data from the survey regarding the machine or operation involved in the accidents.

Tab. 4.1: Accident rate in joining stage.

Material agent (machine)	N° accident victims	Average days of absence due to temporary inability
Skinning machine	2	13 days of absence
Splitting machine	3	10.6 days of absence
Stitching machine	4	5 days of absence
Folding machine	0	/
TOTAL	10	9.5 DAYS OF ABSENCE

No occupational diseases caused by risks related to joining operations have emerged.

Chapter 5

§5. Measures.

§5.1 Measures on machines.

The most frequently observed extensive or planned measures to deal with exposure to the risks defined in Chap. 4, are as follows:

1. Stitching machine:

- Installation of a shield (finger guard) around the needle;

- Covering of belts and their pulleys with fixed carters;

- Installation of local lighting systems for precision work;

- Pedal shield to avoid accidental turning on of the machine.

2. Splitting machine, skinning machine:

- The machine is made inaccessible except for the part strictly necessary for processing;

- Protective shields above the blade support cylinder;

- Protection of the transmission belt;

- Pedal shield to avoid accidental turning on of the machine.

3. Machine to apply eyelets:

- The working area is protected with a rounded shield associated with a finger guard;

- In order to absorb the vibrations transmitted by the machine in work stage, the base is insulated from the floor by the insertion of rubber feet.

Results of observations:

With regard to the risks related to the use of machines in the joining stage, the survey conducted has shown that the firms have taken the following measures:

· In all the firms surveyed using skinning machines (75%), the protective and prevention devices adopted are sufficiently effective to reduce the accident risk, such as:

- The inlets are is inaccessible, thus wholly preventing any catching of hands or other parts of the body, as set forth in Art. 132 of Presidential Decree 547/55;

- Installation of protective shields above the blade support cylinder;

- Protection of the transmission belt.

In 16.7% of the firms surveyed pedal shields are installed to prevent accidental turning on caused by an object falling on the pedal.

Dust aspiration systems have been installed on the machines in 16% of the firms.

· With regard to the preventive measures adopted on the stitching machines, present in 100% of the firms performing the joining stage, the following has been observed:

- In 25% of the firms, pursuant to Art. 155 of Presidential Decree 547/55, protective devices are provided for the needle;

- In 23% of the firms, pursuant to Art. 55 of Presidential Decree 547/55, protective carters are installed above the transmission belts.

For the work involving the use of stitching machines, local lighting systems are provided for undertaking precision work in 50% of the firms (ref. Art. 29 of Presidential Decree 547/55; Art. 10 of Presidential Decree 303/56).

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references.

Accident prevention requires compliance with the specific rules in Presidential Decree N. 547/55; in particular Titles III and IV regard respectively the “General rules for protection of machines” and the “Special rules for protection of specific machines”.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 29: Special lighting

The operational zones of processing machines and those for manual work, the fields for reading or the observation of the control elements and instruments, areas for measurement or indicators in general and any place or element with a particular danger of accident or requiring special surveillance, must be provided with direct and specific lighting.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 41: Protection and safety of machines

The elements of the machines, when presenting a danger, must be protected, segregated or provided with safety devices.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 55: Parts and elements for transmission of motion

transmission axles, pulleys, belts, cables and chains, clutch cylinders and cones, gears and transmission elements must be protected whenever the present a danger.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 59: Gears

Gears, wheels and any moving gear elements must be completely closed in metal housing, or in case of full core wheels, be protected with screens covering the gearing only to its base.

Nevertheless, there may be limited protection in the intake zone only when, in relation to the particular characteristics of the machine or installation, such as very low speed of gears or their location out of reach of persons, this protection offers a sufficient guarantee of safety.

In any case the protection of stated in the previous paragraph must be extended laterally to the base of the gearing and must have the exposed ends designed in such a way as to avoid the danger of anything catching between the protection and the ring gear.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 72: Blockage of protection equipment

The fixed protection devices of mechanical parts, operational areas and dangerous parts of machines, when technically possible and in order to eliminate a serious and specific risk, must be provided with a blockage mechanism connected with device for the start-up and movement of the machine in such as way as to:

a) Prevent the removal or opening of the shield when the machine is running, or to cause the shutdown of the machine upon the removal or opening of the shield;

b) Prevent the start-up of the machine if the shield is not in the closed position.

Ref.: mobile protection with micro switch (splitting machine and stitching machines).

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 77

The start-up controls of the machines must be located in such a way as to avoid accidental start-up or insertion, or be provided with devices designed to ensure this.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 78: pedal control of machines

The general or particular control pedals of the machines, except those for stopping only, must be protected above and laterally by a shield, or be equipped with another device which, while allowing for easy operation, prevents any accidental turning on of the control pedal.

Regulations on the start-up controls of the machines (or parts of them) by pedal, in relation to the specific danger of being operated accidentally (the operator may inadvertently press it), requires the use of adequate protection on the upper part and the sides of the pedal. Similarly, Presidential Decree of 24 July 1996, N. 459 (machines directive), with regard to the characteristics of the start-up control, requires the manufacturer to ensure that start-up must be possible only by a voluntary act of the operator.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 155: Stitching machines with thread

The motorised stitching machines with threat must be equipped, in accordance with the technical requirements of processing, with protection of the needle to avoid injury to the fingers of the workers.

For the machines to apply eyelets and rivets, machines similar to fast presses, protective devices installed must be as follows:

a) With a minimum distance between punch and base in order to make it impossible to insert the fingers between them;

b) Equipped with protective shields or frames;

c) Have hand guards;

d) Have a pneumatic controlled collar.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 132: Rolling mills, rolling machines, calendars and cylinders in general

In machines with moving cylinders and coupled and overhead feeders, or with flat surface fixed or mobile opposing cylinders, such as rolling mills, rolling machines, calendars, cylinder mills, refiners, printing machines and similar, the intake zone, if not inaccessible, must be effectively protected for the whole extension, with a shield to prevent the catching and pulling of hands or other parts of the body of the workers.

Should it not prove possible to protect the intake zone due to processing requirements, the machines stated in the first paragraph must be equipped with a device which, in case of danger, enables the rapid stop of the cylinders with a simple movement.

Furthermore, as far as necessary for safety and technically possible, the workers must be provided with and use appropriate tools enabling them to perform the operations without placing their hands near the dangerous zone.

The rules of this article shall not apply in cases where, in relation to the power, speed, characteristics and sizes of the machines, the danger stated in the first paragraph does not apply.

The dangerous zone to be protected is the intake zone, where any harm to the hands of the operator by the cylinders must be prevented; the entire extension of the intake must be provided with suitable protection to prevent the pulling of the hands of the operator.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 158: Machines with spiral blade cylinders

Machines with spiral blade cylinders such as scrapers, depilators, skinning machines and spreading machines must be equipped with a protection shield above the blade support cylinder, leaving the part strictly necessary for processing uncovered. When the shield is not fixed, it must be equipped with the blocking device set forth in Art. 72.

Ø CEI EN 60204-1 17.2.4

Lamp fixture in insulated material (ref.: folding machine).

Ø CEI EN 60204 – 1 6.2.1

Micro safety switch triggered by opening and located on the protective carter of the electric plant

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1956, N. 303, Art. 21: protection against dust

In processing normally leading to the formation of dust of any type, the employers shall adopt measures designed to prevent or reduce, as far as possible, production and spreading in the work environment.

The measures to be adopted for this purpose must take into account the nature of the dust and its concentration in the atmosphere.

Where it is not possible to replace the dusty material, work procedures must be developed in equipment which is sealed or equipped with dust aspiration and collection systems designed to prevent the dispersion of the dust.

Whatever the system adopted for the collection and elimination of dust, the employers are required to prevent dust from re-entering in the work environment.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: assembly.

Seventeen assembly shops out of the total of 20 firms involved in the survey were examined.

In three situations this work stage is not performed.

In the assembly stages observed, the operations for this work cycle take place women and 29 men.

Gluing operations are conducted in all the 17 cases considered.

In these departments workers without a fixed task but who replace or fill in momentary production requirements have been observed. These personnel may periodically undertake tasks implying the use of adhesives, with direct exposure to the solvents contained in them. Finally, the cementing operations in the assembly area depend on the type of shoe produced (for example: greater use of adhesives in the production of winter shoes compared to summer wear). As a result some workers alternate different tasks diverse with or without exposure to adhesives, according to production requirements.

Some use home workers in this stage; the survey showed 11 home workers, male only.

Assembly consists in the application of the uppers on the form to which the insole has first been secured. The form, currently made of synthetic resins (no longer in wood), reproduces the human foot and serves as a support for producing the shoe.

The operations take place on the conveyor, consisting of belts running along two guides and forming a ring.

The processing cycle concludes after each belt has completed the round. The advancement of the belts is still manual in small footwear plants, and automatic in medium and large facilities.

The typical assembly cycle includes the following operations:

1. Application of insole to form: this takes place by nailing with three or five nails removed in a subsequent stage. Sometimes the insole is trimmed when this was not performed in the cutting stage;

2. Application of the toe piece between uppers and lining, to make the front part of the shoe more resistant. The toe piece consists of fabric impregnated with cellulose resin or thermosetting resin;

3. Insertion of counter (or inner counter): the counter, consisting of leather or a leather substitute, is applied manually between lining and uppers (rear part), glued by mastic or vinyl glue; in other cases, using hot melt adhesive, hot reactivation is sufficient.

Once prepared, the uppers are mounted on the form.

The front, tip and sides of the shoe are generally mounted first, and then the rear part, mainly using the machine called the pulling over lasting machine. These operations were completely manual in the past (in some cases they still are) and were performed with pliers and hammers.

Chapter 2

§2. Equipment, machines and plant.

§2.1 Machines.

There follows the list of the machines used in the assembly stage:

· Toe press: press for applying the toe piece between lining and uppers;

· Pulling over lasting machine: performs operations once requiring two machines, and the pulling over machine that placed three nails, attaching the front part of the uppers to the insole and the lasting machine that completely closed the toe of the uppers around the form and the insole;

· Moulding machines: for securing the counter between the lining and uppers;

· Lining pulling machine: pulls the remaining edges of the uppers in such a way as to make the lining adherent and tight between the uppers and the form; this operation is often undertaken with pulling over by a single machine;

· Sides lasting machine: used for the assembly of the sides of the uppers on the insole by the hot melt injection and/or nailing. The operator holds the shoe with both hands and inserts the edges of the uppers in the slot. The slot closure control and consent for spreading of the hot melt adhesive or nailing is given by pressing a pedal;

· Heel seat and sides lasting machine: Mounts the heel seat (part of the uppers corresponding to the heel);

· Pounding machine: a roller machine that pounds any folds of the uppers in the heel zone and flattens the lower surface of the shoe;

· Heel seat pounding machine: pounds the area in the heel zone to produce the curved part where the heel of women’s shoes is placed.

Assembly is the production stage which has most benefited from the advantages of the new technologies introduced in the sector. We can recall the modern pulling over lasting machines, sides lasting machine and heel seat lasting machine.

Pulling over lasting machines.

All the pulling over lasting machines are designed for the complete mounting of the toe of the uppers on the insole applied to the form.

There are three types of machines according to the complexity of the types of production involved.

First level:

This includes the pulling over lasting machines of the mainly mechanical type.

Second level:

This includes the machines designed for a products made with hides and artificial leather. A hot melt adhesive is used on these machines, with injectors designed to satisfy a wide variety of models; the forms also have a configuration that changes according to the style of the tow (pointed, round or square) and the height of the heel.

The injector block of this machine is shaped like a horseshoe, with the moving parts located on the end and on the lateral parts; this mobility allows for an “adjustable course”, according to the stitching profiles being processed.

The end of the injector block can turn around a bolt; it is removable and interchangeable according to the different design of the toe of the uppers.

The two lateral segments of the injector are automatically arranged according to the form being processed and are equipped with glue distribution tubes.

Basically, this level includes semiautomatic, highly flexible and adjustable machines.

Fig. 1 Pulling over lasting machine with electric transmission system.

Third level:

This includes the technology designed for the so-called “ready made” market and the requirements of high quality footwear.

When there is a model with a certain style, made with specific materials on a specific form, the operator regulates and sets the machine. The regulation operations are stored in a memory by a microprocessor, previously programmed for each change of model and/or size, adjusting the profile of the press and the injector. These recordings, performed during the trials of models, will be reproduced exactly at the time of production.

The machines are equipped with adhesive injectors designed to follow the outlines of the shoe being processed, applying a controlled amount of adhesive exactly in the position required.

Sides lasting machine and heel seat lasting machine.

1) Sides lasting machine and stand alone heel seat lasting machine.

2) Combined machine: sides lasting and heel seat lasting machine.

Sides lasting machine and stand alone heel seat lasting machine.

The sides lasting machine is a machine designed for the manual assembly of the sides of the shoe. The versions available on the market can be grouped in the following categories:

- Kamboria sides lasting machine with adhesive of neoprene or hot melt type (lines, cylindrical blocks or granules).

In the neoprene version, the machine is equipped with a device directing a jet of hot water on the point of execution of the assembly to reactivate the adhesive previously applied.

In the hot melt version, the machine is equipped with devices designed to automatic dispensing of the adhesive that comes out in small amounts.

- Nailing sides lasting machine;

- Nailing and hot melt sides lasting machine.

The heel seat lasting machine is a machine that performs the flattening and shaping of the heel seat. There are different versions of this machine on the market, some functioning only with glue, only with nails and with glue and nails.

Combined sides lasting machine and heel seat lasting machine.

These machines, as for the pulling over lasting machine, use adhesive dispensers that follow the outline of the insole along the sides and the heel seat. There are also configurations that adopt the nailing assembly or mixed nail and glue assembly.

The operator just chooses the model and the indication of the shoe size. The machine is set according to the instructions and performs the programmed assembly.

Figure 2: Combined sides lasting machine and heel seat lasting machine.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

§3.1 Risks related to machines.

The modern pulling over lasting machine, sides lasting machines and heel seat lasting machines considerably reduce the operators’ work, requiring them to just insert the shoe on the specific support. Once this is done, the operators need only start the machine with the pedal or the double control, removing their hands from any danger of crushing.

Results of observations:

25% of the risk assessment documents, collected in the 20 firms, show that:

· The moving parts of the machines involved in work are not completely segregated by design, construction and/or location.

The suggested measures regard the insulation, with suitable shields, of all the unprotected moving parts. In particular, fixed protection to be situated at sufficient distance from the danger zone or protective devices preventing access to moving parts is recommended. When this is not possible, signs indicating the danger are used; furthermore, personnel are provided with information and training course on the use of the machine.

10% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· Fixed protection, in case of opening, remain correctly secured to the machine;

· Devices for tuning motors on and off are not located outside the danger zone; using them involves extra risks or incorrect postures;

· There are no instruction manuals specifying how to safely perform the various operations on the machine: tuning, functioning, maintenance and cleaning;

· There is no mobile protection designed to eliminate the risk of ejection of materials.

20% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· The removal of the mobile protection is not always associated with mechanisms that cause stopping and prevent the starting of the machine. The improvement measures contained in the assessment documents include the need to install, for the mobile protection, micro safety switches, designed to stop the machine or to block the start-up, in case of the opening of the protection;

· The on and off switches of motors and machines are not always clearly visible with the lack of clear labels or symbols enabling personnel to identify them.

25% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There are no clearly visible signs with explicit prohibition to clean, oil, grease, repair or manually register the parts and the elements of the machines while running.

5% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There is no formal preventive and periodical maintenance plan for all the machinery;

· Machinery not in use is not marked and put aside;

· There is a risk of accidental contact with parts of machines or equipment;

· Machine axles protruding from the supports for more than ¼ of their diameter are not adequately protected by a cover secured to parts of the machine not subject to movement;

· There are no mobile protection devices on the machines;

· There is no adjustable protection limiting access to the work areas, requiring the intervention of the operator in their vicinity;

· Power supply cut-off and subsequent return does not trigger the automatic start-up of the machine.

§3.2 The adhesives risk: gluing operations in the assembly stage.

el Nel In the assembly stage various operations are conducted that involve the use of adhesives or other products with a potential risk of exposure to solvents or other harmful substances.

There follows a brief summary of this work, already described in Chapter 1.

1. Application of the toe piece to uppers: with traditional gluing or with a machine with hot melt adhesive; an operation conducted in 76% of the firms surveyed;

2. Application of counter: the counter is applied manually between the lining and uppers (rear part) and glued with adhesives. In some cases hot melt adhesives with heat reactivation are used; an operation performed in 65% of the firms surveyed;

3. Spreading of adhesive on the edge of the uppers: an operation performed in 29% of the firms surveyed.

Furthermore, there are many gluing operations conducted with the help of machines equipped with a feeder system for the adhesive, normally of the hot melt type: pulling over lasting machines, sides lasting machines and heel seat lasting machines, alone or combined.

The survey showed that the type and amount of adhesives used in the assembly stage undergo significant variations, according to the type of the shoe (with major variations during the year) and the different production technologies adopted.

See the chapter on associated risks for general information on the adhesives used in the sector. There follow the data on the observations made in the assembly stage.

Results of the survey regarding the composition of the products:

The products have been classified on the basis of the following criteria:

A. Type of solid phase:

Ø Natural rubber-based adhesives;

Ø Neoprene-based adhesives;

Ø Polyurethane-based adhesives;

Ø Adhesives based on other resins.

B. Type of liquid phase:

Ø Organic solvents;

Ø Water-based solutions.

Hot melt adhesives have been counted separately.

Finally, products acting as diluents for adhesives have been considered.

During the survey the technical descriptions for 32 products used in the assembly stage have been examined (29 adhesives and 3 solvents /diluents for adhesives). On the basis of the classifications described above, the following distribution has been obtained:

- Total adhesives in a solution of organic solvents: N.10 of which

N. 4 natural rubber-based;

N. 5 neoprene-based;

N. 1 polyurethane-based.

With regard to composition, these adhesives have the following characteristics:

· N. 9 contain N-hexane with percentages varying between 2.5-4.5%;

· N. 1 (polyurethane-based) does not contain N-hexane;

· N. 9 contain isohexane with percentages varying between 10-80%;

· N. 7 contain cyclohexane (percentages up to 50%);

· N. 6 contain ethyl acetate (percentages varying between 2.5-80%);

· N. 5 contain acetone (percentages varying between 2.5-15%);

· N. 2 contain toluene (maximum percentage 2.5%, products therefore complying with the requirements of Law N. 245/63 on the limitation of the use of benzol and similar in job activities).

In 6 products the presence of dichloropropane has been reported.

The polyurethane-based adhesive contains acetone, and in a higher percentage, cyclohexane and ethyl acetate.

The liquid phase consisting of organic solvents ranges from a minimum of 80% to a maximum of 91%.

These products are used in all 17 assembly stages (a stage present in 85% of the firms involved in the survey).

- Total solvents /diluents/primers consisting of organic solvents: 3

With regard to composition, these products, formed only by a liquid phase, have the following characteristics:

· N. 3 contain N-hexane with percentages varying between 2.5-4.5%;

· N. 6 contain isohexane with percentages varying between 2.5% and 15%;

· N. 2 contain ethyl acetate (percentages varying between 15 al 75%)

· N. 2 contain acetone (percentages varying between 5% and 15%);

· N. 1 contains acetone (percentage of 90%);

· N. 2 contain toluene (percentage varying between 2.5-5%);

· N. 1 contains toluene (percentage of 10%).

- Total adhesives in water-based liquid: N. 4

Adhesives based on homopolymer vinyl acetate or based on starch products with synthetic resins and mineral additives.

Only two firms (i.e. 11.8%) use these products in the operations of applying the counter and toe piece.

- Total hot melt adhesives, solid: N. 15

Polyamides of natural fatty acids or polyesters used in assembly operations: pulling over lasting machine, application of toe piece, counter and quarters.

Results of the survey regarding the use of less harmful adhesives:

With regard to the replacement of substances containing organic solvents with low risk or risk-free adhesives, the following conclusions emerge:

- Significant use of hot melt adhesives applied with machines;

- Moderate use of water-based adhesives (2 cases only);

- No use of bi-adhesive tape;

- No product contains less than 80% of organic solvents;

- No use of products with the "Harmful product" symbol on the label, i.e. all the products observed contain mixtures of hexane isomers with a maximum of 5% of n-hexane (Ministry Decree 16/2/1993 - classification and regulation of the labelling of dangerous substances);

- Generalised use of products containing increasingly high percentages of isohexane to replace industrial hexane (containing n-hexane);

- Considerable use of products containing higher percentages of keytone, esters, cyclohexane and heptane;

- Limited use of products containing toluene;

The adhesive diluents analysed contain a high percentage of acetone; in one product over 10% of toluene was recorded.

Considering the three most common gluing operations of the stage and the type of adhesive used, the following distribution is observed:

1. Application counter:

- Use of hot melt adhesives in 9 firms;

- Use of water-based adhesives in two firms;

- Use of solvent-based adhesives in 7 firms.

2. Application of toe piece:

- Use of hot melt adhesives in 6 firms:

- Use of water-based adhesives in one firm;

- Use of solvent-based adhesives in two firms;

3. Spreading adhesive on edge of uppers:

- Use of solvent-based adhesives in 8 firms;

- Use of water-based adhesives in one firm.

Results of the survey regarding risk containment measures:

For an evaluation of these aspects the following points were examined:

1) Presence/absence of aspiration hoods;

2) Suitability of aspiration hoods available;

3) Suitability of adhesive containers.

§ Presence of aspiration hoods.

The gluing operations are conducted in all the firms with the assembly stage.

Considering the total of the workstations using adhesives with a liquid phase consisting of organic solvents and the three main activities involved in the use, the following situation emerges:

Aspiration hoods are present:

- In 91% of the workstations where application of the toe piece is performed;

- In 40% of the workstations where the spreading of adhesive on edge of the uppers is performed;

- In 88% of the workstations where application of the counter is performed.

It is recalled that aspiration hoods are not required in the use of hot melt products.

Suitability of aspiration of the hoods present.

The hoods installed on cementing worktables are suitable in 65% of cases. Lack of compliance for most of the hoods is due to overhead aspiration and the absence of a grilled table.

With regard to maintenance and cleaning of the hoods, there is a serious lack of attention:

- 50% of the hoods have characteristics considered mediocre due to poor cleaning of the grill, lack of maintenance and inefficiency of aspiration (covering on the aspiration grill);

- The remaining 50% have characteristics considered very poor since glue residue is never cleaned off the grill.

Tunnel.

This is absent in two cases (11.8%). When present, the conveyor tunnels are generally of proper size and length, although not exploited internally; solvent aspiration systems, from below, are present in 60% of the firms surveyed; the tunnels are in any case unsuitable on the whole (73% of the observations). Lack of compliance is due to:

- Insufficient aspiration;

- Overhead rather than lower aspiration;

- The location of the aspiration intake, excessively low with respect to the surface where the pieces are placed;

- Keeping of sliding closure panels in a constantly open position.

Use of suitable containers

In 20% of the firms there were suitable recipients for products (dispenser with reduced evaporating surface). On average, considering the total of the observations about 35% of the containers were suitable.

Adhesives located in glass jam jars are often observed.

In no case do the workers involved in gluing operations wear the personal protection devices (gloves) made available in order to avoid skin contact with the products.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents / number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (26 / 149*7) x 100 = 2.49%

A.R. entire sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information collected in the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed, and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk, 149 workers employed in assembly operations, with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years ‘92-‘98 is constant and equal to that observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation of 7 years is 17.5% (A.R. entire sector = 19%).

For the period surveyed, the occurrence rate for the use of various tools is 5.4%, and 12.1% for the use of machines.

The following table (Tab. 4.1) summarises the data derived from the survey, according to the following criteria:

1. Material agent (tool or machine responsible for the accident);

2. Number of employees suffering accidents;

3. Calculation of the average days of absence for absolute temporary inability.

Table 4.1: Accident rate in the assembly stage.

Material agent (machines; tools)	N° accident victims	Average days of absence due to temporary inability
Nailing machine	1	7 days of absence
Heel seat machine	1	11 days of absence
Toe piece application machine	0	/
Heel seat pounding machine	0	/
Pulling over lasting machine	7	11.8 days of absence
Sides lasting machine	1	2 days of absence
Nail remover	3	15 days of absence
Heel seat pounding machine	1	3 days of absence
Beating machine	0	/
Sanding machine	4	2.75 days of absence
Various tools (pliers, hammers, needles etc.)	8	5.8 days of absence
TOTAL	26	8 DAYS OF ABSENCE

No occupational diseases due to risks related to assembly operations emerged.

Chapter 5

§5. Measures.

§5.1 Measures on machines

The most frequently recorded extensive or planned measures in the assessment documents are based on the contents of Presidential Decree 459/96 (Machines Directive) and of Legislative Decree 626/94.

Results of observations:

The survey conducted has led to the following observations:

· Where used (64.7% of the firms surveyed), the nailing machine for the application of the insole, is always equipped with a pedal shield to prevent involuntary turning on. In 27% of these firms, this device of safety is accompanied by double control devices to keep the operator at a distance;

· The safety devices for the heel seat machine (machines present in 47% of the firms surveyed), are double control devices, and a pedal shield to prevent involuntary turning on;

· The operation of applying of the toe piece is performed manually in 18% of the firms, and performed with the toe piece application machine in 82% of cases. In these cases the toe piece application machines are equipped with the devices required by the Machines Directive in 78% of cases;

· All the moulding machines, present in 41% of the firms visited, are equipped with pedal shields of the controls and double control devices;

· The pulling over lasting machine, a machine of basic importance for the assembly of the shoe, is present in 85% of the firms (absence is justified only in cases of production external firms - in 10% of cases - or in the processing of very special footwear - 5% of cases); these machines are equipped with suitable protection of the start-up pedal in 76.5%, double control devices in 53% of cases and emergency devices in 100% of cases;

· The sides lasting machine (present in 64.7% of the firms) has double control devices in 61.5% of cases; the pedal shield is always adopted; further emergency or shutdown devices are observed in 54% of cases;

· 25% of the footwear plants have a beating machine, equipped with safety devices in compliance with the Machines Directive in 67% of cases. Dust aspiration devices are present in 55.5% of cases;

· 64.7% of the firms surveyed use the sanding machine in this work stage: it is equipped with bag systems for the collection of the dust produced (see dust risk). These machines often fail to comply with Art. 94 of Presidential Decree 547/55 since they are wholly or partially without protection of the rotating abrasive part. Many systems have precarious and inadequate protection, with the carters being torn by the rotation and not properly secured.

§5.2 Measures adopted on the gluing operations.

In order to reduce risks in the use of gluing and cleaning products with organic solvents, measures have been adopted on the basis of Presidential Decree 303/56 and the Circular of 29/03/1976 of the Ministry of Labour.

Results of observations:

With regard to the risks related to the use of glue in assembly stage, the survey has shown the adoption of the following measures by the firms:

· Installation of aspiration hoods for gluing operations in:

- 40% of the firms performing the spreading of the adhesive on the edge of the uppers;

- 7.7% of the firms performing application on counters with solvent-based products;

· Use of suitable containers for glue in 20% of the firms surveyed;

· Introduction of less harmful or non-harmful adhesive products to replace of harmful products (see Chapter 3).

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 94: Cleaning and polishing

Cleaning machines or tape, drum, roll or disk polishing machines, operating with sandpaper or other abrasive powder, must have the abrasive part not used in the operation protected against accidental contact.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 115, 117: Devices for the presses in general

Ø EN931 August 1997: Footwear manufacturing machines – lasting machines – Safety requirements

· EN292-1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 1: Basic terminology, methodology.

· EN292-2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 2: Technical principles and specifications.

· EN294: 1992 Safety of machinery – Emergency stop equipment; functional aspects – Principles for design.

· prEN547 – 1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 1: Principles for determining the dimensions required for openings for whole body access into machinery.

· prEN547 – 2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 2: Principles for determining the dimensions required for access openings.

· EN563: 1994 Safety of machinery – Temperature of touchable surfaces – Ergonomic data to establish temperature limit values for hot surfaces.

· PrEN894 – 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Ergonomic requirements and data for the design of displays and control actuators – Part 1: Human interaction with display and control actuators.

· PrEN953:1992 Safety of machinery – General requirements for the design and the construction of guards (fixed, movable).

· EN954-1: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety related parts of control systems – part 1: General principles for design.

· EN982: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Hydraulics.

· EN983: 1996 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Pneumatics.

· prEN1005 – 1: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 1: Terms and definitions.

· prEN1005 – 2: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 2: Manual handling of heavy weights associated with machinery.

· prEN1005 – 1: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 3: Recommended force limits for operational machinery.

· EN1037: 1995 Safety of machinery – Isolation and energy dissipation – Prevention of unexpected start-up.

· ENV 1070:1993 Safety of machinery – Terminology.

· EN 23740 series 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power levels of noise sources- Guidelines for the use of basic standards.

· EN 4871 1) Acoustics – Declaration and verification of noise emission values of machinery and equipment (ISO 4871:1996).

· EN ISO 9614 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power level of noise sources using sound intensity.

· EN ISO 11200 series 1) Acoustics – Noise emitted by machinery and equipment – Guidelines for the use of basic standards for the determination of emission sound pressure levels at the work station and at other specified positions (ISO 11200:1995).

· EN ISO 11689 1) Acoustics – Systematic collection and comparison of noise emission data for machinery and equipment (ISO 11689:1996).

· EN 60204 – 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Electrical equipment of machines – part 1: General requirements.

· EN 60947- 5-1: 1992 Low voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 5: Control circuit devices and switching elements; Electro-mechanical control circuit devices.

Circular 29/03/1976 N. 256 (Prevention of the polynevritis from adhesives – special vigilance) of the Ministry of Labour:

Workstations using adhesives and paint dissolved in organic solvents must be equipped with suitable local mechanical aspiration systems.

In particular:

- The conveyor must be shielded as a tunnel with panels in transparent material if possible sliding and equipped inside with lower aspiration vents and connected with a central system dispersing the fumes outside the plant (in compliance with Law N. 615). The length of the tunnel must be sufficient to guarantee the drying of the adhesive before the pieces leave the conveyor.

The surface of the worktable must not be covered by boards or similar objects making the aspiration inefficient.

- Similarly, the worktables where organic solvents are used must be equipped with local aspiration like the cementing lines.

- Maintenance of the workstations with aspiration: the worktable must be kept free from any deposits formed in order to ensure efficient aspiration.

- Containers of glue or other harmful products: the containers used must ensure maximum limitation of the evaporation area, e.g. with gooseneck dispensers. In the presence of adhesives with two components, where dispensers cannot be used, containers with a cover and minimum evaporating surface are recommended. Containers must have the symbols and labels required by Art. 18 of Presidential Decree 303/1956.

- Containers of glue and solvents not in current use must be kept closed.

- Harmful raw materials being processed must not be accumulated in work rooms in amounts exceeding those necessary for processing.

- Any skin contact with these materials must be avoided, and the workers supplied with suitable personal protection devices.

- Ventilation of production rooms: suitable ventilation must be maintained with fresh air intake from a zone without pollution, without recycling.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 355: Indications for recipients (amended by Art. 6 Legislative Decree 14/8/96 N.493 on safety signs)

Recipients used to store dangerous or harmful products or materials, in order to show the nature and danger of the contents, must show the symbols and labels required for each of them by the rules governing them.

The symbols and labels must comply with the rules set forth in Legislative Decree N. 493 of 14 August 1996, implementing EEC directive N. 92/58/EEC, laying down the minimum requirements for safety and/or health labelling at the workplace. The type of label is the one required for the labelling of dangerous substances or products as classified in Law N. 256 of 29 May 1974.

Ø Presidential Decree 19 March 1956, N. 303, Art. 20: Defence of the air from pollution by harmful products, amended by Art. 36, c.7 of Legislative Decree 626/94 and by Art. 17 of Legislative Decree 242/96.

In processing involving gas or vapour which is unbreathable, toxic or inflammable, and in those normally producing odours or smoke of any type, the employers must adopt measures designed to prevent or reduce as far as possible their production and spreading.

Aspiration of the gas, vapour and odours must take place, as far as possible, immediately near the place where they are produced.

Any work equipment involving dangers due to emission of gas, vapour, liquids or dust, must be equipped with appropriate retention or extraction devices near to the source of these dangers.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: bottom assembly.

The survey examined 16 bottom stages on the total of the 20 firms involved in the survey, since in the other cases this work stage is not performed. In the bottom assembly observed, the work cycle operations take place, partially or wholly, as described below.

There are 151 employees in assembly operations, of whom 26 women and 125 men.

Gluing operations are conducted in all the firms considered.

In the footwear sector the term “bottom” indicates the various items used to manufacture the shoe: toe piece, counter, insole, eventual filling, sole, waist, welt and heel. The term is also often used in the restrictive sense, with the meaning of sole.

The bottom shop refers to the work area where the assembly of the uppers with the sole is performed.

A sole can be attached to the uppers by:

- The use of glue of various types;

- Stitching;

- Directly building it onto the assembled shoe;

- Injecting appropriate synthetic materials into dies;

- Vulcanising rubber in heated shaped aluminium containers.

Cementing system: This involves turning part of the edge of the uppers onto the lower edge of the insole and anchoring the uppers, insole and sole with various types of glue. This is the most commonly used system and involves specially made machines for automatically performing some operations.

“Good-year” sewn welt system: A cut is made on the leather insole to produce an edge which is subsequently opened, lifted and properly reinforced. When the insole is produced with material other than leather, the edge on which the stitching is performed is produced by using highly resistant fabric, anchored to the sole with glue. A special machine with a curved needle is used to join uppers, insole and welt (reinforcement structure) with horizontal stitching.

Blake stitching machine: this system, using a Blake or McKay machine, is used for two-thread knotted stitching of the insole, uppers and sole. This machine is also used to stitch moccasins.

Today there is reduced production with the following operations: folding, stitching, closure of fold with adhesive, spreading of the sole.

Ideal system: unlike the other systems, here the edge of the uppers is turned with respect to the form and secured to the insole protruding from the form edge.

A variation of this system is obtained by stitching the edge of the uppers turned outwards and mounted directly on the sole. It is the simplest method of joining the sole to the uppers.

Chapter 2

§2. Equipment, Machines and Plant.

After the assembly of the uppers, all the operations regarding the processing and application of the sole formed by heel, insole and sole proper are conducted along the conveyor.

The following machines are used.

§2.1 Carders or scraping machines.

The operation of carding (or scraping) of the uppers mounted, has the purpose of removing the surface layer of the part of the uppers folded under and secured to the insole, in order to produce a rough surface allowing a better effect of the adhesives and in order to reduce any excess thickness. We can recall:

Linear carders: the carding of the upper edge is performed with a steel brush tool guided along the line by a sensor which instantaneously follows each type of profile without requiring any programming.

Carders with dies: carding is possible with the help of dies for each type of shoe. The dies, produced with the help of a normal pantograph, provide the guidance of the steel wire brushes thus guaranteeing the continuity and accuracy of the operation.

Programmable carders: these operate according on the basis of numerical control, i.e. using the setting of 3-dimensional model for defining the points where the brush must operate.

§2.2 Cementing machines.

The operation of glue distribution on the bottom of the assembled shoes is sequential to that of carding. Gluing is often still performed manually. We can recall:

Roll cementing machines: these spread the adhesive on the surface of soles and insoles by the counter-rotation movement of two rolls, one of which is partially immersed in tray containing the adhesive;

Automatic cementing machines: these have brush type glue dispensers.

§2.3 Drying ovens.

These are ovens (with forced circulation of air at ambient temperature and at high speed) to dry the glue spread on the bottom of the assembled shoes and on the sole to be coupled. The drying time of adhesives is of two minutes for polyurethanes, three minutes neoprenes and 4 or 5 or minutes for water-based adhesives.

§2.4 Sole press machine.

The sole, after being scraped and glued, is applied by pressing on an elastic form covered with leather, suitably expanded with compressed air or water.

In traditional presses, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure is applied to the sole.

Machines of more recent design use automatic hydraulic movement and fixing arms which secure the upper part, thus freeing the operator from the need for continuous adaptations (Figures 1,2).

Figure 1: Sole press machine.

Figure 2: Pressing of rear support.

§2.5 Heel lasting machine and heel nailing machine.

These machines are used for all bottoms having the separate heel and thus requiring heel-sole lasting (Figure 3).

Nailing machines are presses which have been modified to be suited to the requirements of the footwear sector. Since they work on heels, often very delicate (due to structure, material, the presence of an over-heel etc.), it was necessary to find solutions combining operational efficiency with a delicate intervention, solving the problems created by excessive pressing loads:

- Hydraulic blockage: this allows for blockage of the heel before it is subjected to the pressure of the nailing device;

- Programmable sequence nailing: this reduces the strain to which heels are subjected during application of nails. The presence of multi-compartment loaders allows these machines to use nails and screws simultaneously, reducing empty timeslots and increasing productivity;

- Slope of nails: different slopes of the point of the nails in the application of heels with special styling;

- Flexible and mobile arms and plates: the nail feeding arm is flexible and in case of blockage during the nail loading stage, it unblocks promptly and automatically.

Figure 3: Heel nailing machine.

§2.6 Milling machines per soles and heels.

These machines remove material from the heels or soles to achieve the forms and sizes requested. The tool has multiple cutting blades and operates at a very high rpm rate.

§2.7 Fleshing machines.

These machines undertake milling with a rough removal of material from the sole.

§2.8 Blake stitching machine.

These machines produce the reversible fold on the lower surface of the sole, a sort of niche to hold the stitching joining the sole, uppers and insole and subsequently closed by the fold with special adhesives. These operations are not performed if the sole is joined with the uppers, secured in turn to the insole, without stitching but only by gluing.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

§3.1 Risks related to machines.

The operations of carding, gluing and pressing are stages to which footwear producers pay great care for the implication on the quality of the product.

Also today, in most footwear plants, these operations, performed manually, are entrusted to the professional skills of expert employees. The importance of this stage has in recent years lead to the continuous search for innovative solutions, automatising the operations and reducing the related risks.

Results of observations:

The risk assessment documents collected in the 20 firms have shown in 25% of cases that:

· The moving parts of the machines involved in the work are not completely segregated by design, construction and/or location.

The suggested measures regard the insulation, with suitable shields, of all the unprotected moving parts. In particular, fixed protection to be situated at a sufficient distance from the danger zone or protective devices preventing access to moving parts is recommended. Where this does not prove possible, the measure adopted is the placing of danger signs and the production of information and training courses on the use of the machine for the personnel involved.

In 10% of cases that:

· Devices for tuning motors on and off are not located outside the danger zone; using them involves extra risks or incorrect postures;

· There are no instruction manuals specifying how to safely perform the various operations on the machine: tuning, functioning, maintenance, cleaning;

· There is no mobile protection designed to eliminate the risk of flying materials.

In 20% of cases that:

· The removal of the mobile protection is not always associated with mechanisms causing the stop and preventing the start-up of the machine. In these situations, the assessment documents indicate the need to install micro safety switches in case of opening of the protection;

· The on and off switches of motors and machines are not always clearly visible with the lack of clear labels or symbols enabling personnel to identify them;

In 25% of cases that:

· There are no clearly visible signs with the explicit prohibition to clean, oil, grease, repair or manually register the parts and the elements of the machines while running;

In 5% of cases that:

· There is no formal plan for preventive and periodical maintenance of all the machines;

· The machines which are not operating are not marked or segregated if not used;

· There is a risk of accidental contact with parts of machines or equipment;

· Machine axles protruding from their supports by over ¼ of their diameter are not adequately protected by shielding secured to parts of the machine which do not move;

· There is no mobile protection of machines;

· There is no adjustable protection limiting access in operating zones in work requiring operator intervention in their vicinity;

§3.2 The adhesives risk: bottom gluing operations.

el Nel In the bottom stage, various operations are performed that involve the use of adhesives or other products with a potential risk of exposure to solvents or other harmful substances.

We can recall the processes consisting in the joining of the sole to the uppers, already described in Chapter 1, made with the following techniques:

Gluing or cementing system;

“Good-year” system;

System with “Blake” stitching with closure of the fold with adhesive and spreading of the sole;

Ideal system.

As already stated, the bottom stage is performed in 17 firms (85%) of the 20 surveyed; in all the situations examined, gluing operations are performed. In 74% of cases the gluing operations take place exclusively by hand, in 13.5% by machine and manually and in the remaining 13.5% exclusively by machine.

See the chapter on associated risks for the general information on the adhesives used in the sector. There follow the data on the observations made in the bottom work stage.

Results of the survey regarding the composition of the products:

The products have been classified on the basis of the following criteria:

A. Nature of the solid phase;

· Natural rubber-based adhesives;

· Neoprene-based adhesives;

· Polyurethane-based adhesives;

· Adhesives based on other resins.

B. Nature of the liquid phase:

1. Organic solvents;

2. Water-based solutions.

Products with functions of diluents, activators and hardeners of adhesives have been considered.

Finally, the product sheets of softeners were considered.

During the survey the product sheets of N. 44 products used in the bottom stage were analysed:

· N. 20 adhesives in organic solvents;

· N. 9 water-based adhesives;

· N. 5 solvents /diluents for adhesives;

· N. 6 activators/various products;

· N. 2 filling products;

· N. 2 softeners.

On the basis of the classifications described above, the following distribution has been obtained:

- Total adhesives in solution of organic solvents: N. 20

No natural rubber-based products;

N. 15 neoprene-based;

N. 5 polyurethane-based.

These adhesives are used in all the situations observed; in 65% of the firms they are used together with adhesive products in water-based liquid.

No natural rubber-based adhesives were recorded. On the other hand, neoprene-based adhesives are widely used, because of their greater resistance, in all the firms.

Finally, the polyurethane-based adhesives are used by 25% of the firms.

With regard to composition, these adhesives have the following characteristics:

- For the N. 15 neoprene-based adhesives:

· All contain N-hexane with percentages varying between 2.5-4.5%;

· All contain isohexane with percentages varying between 3% and 44%;

· N. 7 contain mixtures of aliphatic and cycloaliphatic paraffin hydrocarbons with percentages up to 44 %;

· N. 4 contain ethyl acetate with percentages varying between 2.5 and 16%;

· N. 2 contain acetone with percentages varying between 8% and 13%;

· N. 3 contain methyl ethyl keytone with percentages varying between 7% and 19%;

· N. 3 contain industrial heptane percentages up to 32%.

- For the N. 5 polyurethane-based adhesives:

· None contain N-hexane;

· N. 5 contain acetone with percentages varying between 70% and 90%.

We can recall that the polyurethane-based adhesives contain a higher percentage of acetone, with the presence in the mixture of cyclohexane and ethyl acetate.

The liquid phase consisting of organic solvents ranges from a minimum of 75% to a maximum of 82%.

- Total adhesives in water-based liquid: N. 9.

Adhesives based on homopolymer vinyl acetate or starch products with synthetic resins and mineral additives.

· N. 11 firms (i.e. 64.7%) have introduced these products in the operations of preparation and application of the bottom.

- Total solvents / diluents / primers for adhesives formed by organic solvents: N. 5.

With regard to composition, these products, with a liquid phase only, have the following characteristics:

· N. 1 is contains isohexane only;

· N. 1 contains N-hexane with a percentage under 4%;

· N. 3 contain cyclohexane (percentages varying between 43% and 73%)

· N. 1 contains ethyl acetate (percentage 95%);

· N. 3 contain ethyl acetate (percentages varying between 27% al 40%);

· N. 1 contains acetone (percentage 90%);

· N. 2 contain acetone (percentages varying between 5% and 15%);

· N. 2 contain toluene (percentage under 5%).

- Total activators / hardeners / preparers / other products: N. 6

These were formed by the following compounds:

· Activator containing thiophosphoric-3 acid (p-iso cyanate phenyl ester) at 27%, chlorobenzene under 2%, ethyl acetate 7%;

· Colourless hardener and cementing promoter containing thiophosphoric-3 acid (p-iso cyanate phenyl ester) 27%, chlorobenzene under 3%;

· Reticulating activator for adhesives, containing 2.4/2.6 – toluene di-isocyanate under 0.5% and ethyl acetate (70-80 %);

· Halogenating preparer with 2 components;

· A product based on trichloro-s-triazine 2,4,6-trione used in two of the firms surveyed.

· Mixture of wax and silicone in non-organic turpentine and terpenic fraction;

· Detacher in aliphatic paraffinic hydrocarbons of 50-60%.

- Total filling products: N.2.

These are formed by the following materials:

· Adhesive plaster for the levelling of the bottom based on synthetic elastomers, minerals and wood powder dispersed and dissolved in organic solvents;

· Filling paste based on nitrocellulose, minerals and wood powder dissolved in acetone with nitrocellulose.

- Total softeners: N. 2

These formed by the following materials:

· Softener based on distilled water with anionic biodegradable surface active product;

· Softener containing isopropyl alcohol with percentage under 10% and polyxyloxane.

Results of the survey regarding the use of less harmful adhesives:

With regard to the replacement of substances containing organic solvents with low risk or risk-free adhesives, the following conclusions emerge:

- Extensive use of water-based adhesives (11 situations of the 17 examined);

- Some products contain organic solvents at 75%, less than the average percentage of 80%;

- No use of products with the “Harmful product” symbol on the label, i.e. all the products observed contain mixtures of hexane isomers with a maximum of 5% of n-hexane (Ministry Decree 16/2/1993 - classification and regulation of the labelling of dangerous substances);

- Generalised use of products containing increasingly high percentages of isohexane to replace industrial hexane (containing n-hexane);

- Generalised use of products containing higher percentages of keytone, esters, cyclohexane and heptane instead of industrial hexane;

- Types of keytone used are acetone, 2-butanone, methyl ethyl keytone and 2-propanone;

- No significant of products containing toluene;

- No use of hot melt adhesives applied with machines;

- The diluents for adhesive analysed contain high percentages of acetone, cyclohexane and ethyl acetate.

- In one un product less than 5% toluene was recorded.

Results of the survey regarding risk containment measures:

For an evaluation of these aspects the following points were examined:

1) Presence/absence of aspiration hoods ;

2) Suitability of aspiration hoods available;

3) Suitability of adhesive containers.

Presence of aspiration hoods .

The gluing operations are conducted in all the firms with the bottom stage.

Considering the total of the hoods present with respect to the number of workstations using adhesives in organic solvents, there is a coverage of 69%.

In particular, for the operations of preparation of the bottoms conducted in 88% of the firms performing this stage, there are aspiration hoods in 73% of the cases.

In 82% of cases ventilation takes place through normal aspiration hoods used in manual gluing operations, while in the remaining 18% of cases ventilation takes place through hoods installed directly on the machines equipped with the gluing system.

Where there are no ventilation hoods (4 firms i.e. 27% of the observations), the cementing operations are performed on worktables, with high risk conditions for the operators who in many operations must have their face close to the gluing area.

For the operations of application of the bottom, present in 65% of the firms, aspiration hoods are present in 63% of the firms and absent in the remaining 37%.

Suitability of aspiration of the hoods present.

The hoods installed on cementing worktables are suitable in 70% of cases.

In particular, in stage of bottom preparation, it was observed that:

- Aspiration is undertaken from below, and in only case both from below and above; for the cementing machines, aspiration takes place from below at the injector block inside the machine;

- Maintenance is often neglects (acceptable standards only for 27% of the cases) with consequent reduction of the aspiration effectiveness of the hoods.

The grilled working surfaces often have heavy deposits.

There is the widespread practice of placing cardboard on the grilled work surface, resulting in the reduction of the overall aspiration capacity in the bottom application stage.

The grilled work surface showed very poor conditions due to lack of cleaning.

Also in this operation there is the widespread practice of placing cardboard on the grilled work surface (in 15% of the observations).

Tunnel.

Once spreading of the adhesive is completed, the cemented footwear is placed in the conveyor tunnel to dry and go on to the next working stage.

The tunnel is absent in two cases (11.8%). Where present, the conveyor tunnels are generally well dimensioned and of suitable length, although not internally exploited. The solvent ventilation systems from below are found in 60% of the firms surveyed; the tunnels are in any case unsuitable on the whole (73% of the observations).

Unsuitability is due to the following:

- Insufficient aspiration;

- Aspiration from above rather than from below;

- The location of the aspiration vent, excessively low with respect to the surface where the pieces are placed;

- The sliding panels are kept in a constantly open in position.

It has often been observed that excessively rapid production time requires employees to intervene before the complete of the adhesive on the shoes coming out of the conveyor. The fast rate also implied that the workers must always keep the tunnel panels open, if not for the entire length, at least in the gluing zone. Finally, workers have to use trolleys lacking aspiration, placed alongside the conveyor, for the rapid transport of the pieces.

Drying stations have often been observed outside the tunnels, and the soles spread with glue are placed without aspiration.

The results of mobile arm aspiration systems are likewise negative. This equipment is, in fact, easily moved by personnel to incorrect work positions (for example overhead), far from emission points and with increases in exposure.

Use of suitable containers.

On average, considering the total of the observations, about the 73% of the containers meet standards.

In 64% of the firms there is a complete presence of suitable recipients for products (dispensers with reduced evaporating surface).

In 24% of the situations non-standard containers are used, often including the adhesive liquid, or, when several workers work at the same workstation, by trays large enough to be accessible to all.

For the bottom application operations, suitable dispensers have been introduced and are correctly used in 89% of cases.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents / number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (41 / 151*7) x 100 = 3.87 %

A.R. entire sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information collected in the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed, and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk, 151 workers employed ad operations of bottom, with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to that observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation of 7 years is 27.2% (A.R. entire sector = 19%)

For the period surveyed, there is an accident rate of 25.2% for the use of machines and 2% for the use of various tools on 151 employees in the stage.

Table 4.1 summarises the survey data, on the basis of the following criteria:

1. Nature of the accident (instrument or machine responsible);

2. Number of accident victims;

3. Calculation of the average days of absence due to inability.

Table 4.1: Accident rate in stage of bottom.

Material agent (machine, tools/tools)	N° accident victims	Average days of absence due to temporary inability
Carding machine	1	3 days of absence
Finishing machine	2	13.5 days of absence
Blake stitching machine	3	5.5 days of absence
Milling machine	21	10.3 days of absence
Hydraulic press	1	6 days of absence
Heel seat pounding machines	3	13 days of absence
Sanding machine	5	11,9 days of absence
Sole cementing machine	2	5 days of absence
Tools	3	9.5 days of absence
TOTAL	41	AVERAGE DAYS OF ABSENCE 8.48

No occupational diseases due to risks related to bottom operations emerged.

Chapter 5

§5. Measures.

§5.1 Measures on machines.

Cementing machines for soles are governed by Art. 132 of Presidential Decree 547/55, with compulsory use of protective devices of the intake zone.

The protective devices normally installed on hydraulic presses are: double controls to be operated with both hands and use of low pressure during approach to the shoes, in order avoid crushing.

The Blake stitching machines are governed by Art. 155 of Presidential Decree 547/55. It is suggested that protective devices against piecing by the needle be used here (for example: devices to support and guide the shoes without the need to hold them directly with the hands).

The carders, milling machines and sanding machines are governed by Art. 94 of Presidential Decree 547/55, requiring compulsory protection of the abrasive part not used in the operation against accidental contact.

Results of observations:

The survey has furthermore led to the following observations:

- The linear carders, used in 50% of the firms surveyed, are often without protection fixed on the rotating abrasive part, or with precarious protection (carders torn by rotation and weakly fixed).

- In 21.4% of cases the use of carder-gluing machines was observed, equipped with modern safety systems.

- The finishing machine, present in 15% of the firms surveyed, shows suitable protection of the start-up pedal (Art. 7 of Presidential Decree 547/55) and protective devices for sharp and cutting components;

- The Blake stitching machines, present in 15% of the firms, in 66% of cases have protective devices for the needle (Art. 155 of Presidential Decree 547/55); in one case, the machine used for the stitching of a particular type of footwear (boots) totally lacked adequate protective devices, being of a very old design;

- The sole milling machines, present in 25% of the footwear plants, often lack fixed protection on the abrasive rotating part, or are poorly equipped in this regard.

- The hydraulic press, present in 85% of the firms, in all cases where there is a start-up pedal, is equipped with a pedal shield to prevent accidental turning on of the machine (Art. 7 of Presidential Decree 547/55) and in 76.4% of cases with a double control device;

- The heel pounding machine, present in 55% of the firms, has a double control device in 54.5% of cases and automatic turning on in 27,3% of cases; only in one firm, with traditional and handcrafted processing (production of riding boots) the heel pounding machine was operated manually with a lever.

5.2 Measures adopted on the gluing operations.

For the general rules for technical prevention on the use of adhesives products containing organic solvents reference is made to Presidential Decree 303/56 and the Ministry of Labour Circular of 29/03/1976.

Results of observations:

With regard to the risks related to the use of glue in the bottom processing stage, the survey has shown the implementation of the following measures by the firms:

· Installation of aspiration hoods for gluing operations in 73.3% of the firms.

· Use in 63.6% of the firms of suitable gooseneck containers;

· Introduction of less harmful or non-harmful adhesive products to replace harmful products.

(see Chapter 3)

Chapter 6

6. Legislative references.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 94, 132, 155.

Ø prEN12203 November 1995: Footwear, leather and imitation leather goods manufacturing machines – Shoe and leather presses - Safety requirements.

· EN292-1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 1: Basic terminology, methodology.

· EN292-2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts; general principles for design – Part 2: Technical principles and specifications.

· EN294: 1992 Safety of machinery; safety distances to prevent danger zones being reached by the upper limbs.

· EN349: 1993 Safety of machinery – Minimum gaps to avoid crushing of parts of human body.

· EN418: 1992 Safety of machinery – Emergency stop equipment; functional aspects – Principles for design.

· EN547:1992 Safety of machinery – auditory danger signals; general requirements, design and testing.

· prEN547 – 1: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 1: Principles for determining the dimensions required for openings for whole body access into machinery.

· prEN547 – 2: 1991 Safety of machinery – Human body dimensions – Part 2: Principles for determining the dimensions required for access openings.

· prEN563: 1994 Safety of machinery – temperatures of touchable surfaces; ergonomic data to establish temperature limit values for hot surfaces.

· prEN574: 1991 Safety of machinery – Two–hand control devices.

· PrEN614-1: 1991 Safety of machinery – ergonomic design principles –Part 1:Terminology and general principles.

· EN626- 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Reduction of risks to health from hazardous substances emitted by machinery – part 1: Principles and specifications for machinery manufacturers.

· EN775: 1992 Safety requirements for robots (ISO/DIS 10 218).

· EN811: 1992 Safety of machinery – safety distances to prevent danger zones being reached by the lower limbs.

· EN842: 1992 Safety of machinery – visual danger and testing.

· prEN894 – 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Ergonomic requirements and data for the design of displays and control actuators – Part 1: Human interaction with display and control actuators.

· prEN894 – 2: 1992 Safety of machinery – Ergonomic requirements and data for the design of displays and control actuators – Part 2: Displays.

· prEN894 – 3: 1992 Safety of machinery – Ergonomic requirements and data for the design of displays and control actuators – Part 3: Control actuators.

· prEN953:1992 Safety of machinery – General requirements for the design and the construction of guards (fixed, movable).

· EN954-1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Safety related parts of control systems – part 1: General principles for design.

· prEN 281:1992 Safety of machinery – system of danger and non –danger signals with sound and light.

· EN982: 1992 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Hydraulics.

· EN983: 1992 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid power systems and components – Pneumatics.

· PrEN999: 1993 Safety of machinery – Hand/arm speed – Approach speed of parts of the body for the positioning of safety devices.

· prEN1005 – 2: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 2: Manual handling of heavy weights associated with machinery.

· prEN1005 – 3: 1993 Safety of machinery – Human physical performance – Part 3: Recommended force limits for machinery operation.

· EN1037: 1993 Safety of machinery – Isolation and energy dissipation – Prevention of unexpected start-up.

· ENV 1070:1993 Safety of machinery – Terminology.

· EN 1088: 1995 Safety of machinery – Interlocking devices with guard locking – General principles and provisions for design.

· prEN 1093 – 1: 1993 Safety of machinery – Evaluation of the emission of airborne hazardous substances _ Part 1: Selection of the test method.

· EN 24871 series 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power levels of noise sources- Guidelines for the use of basic standards.

· EN 23 740 series 1) Acoustics – Determination of sound power level of noise sources.

· ENV 26385 – Ergonomic principles in the design of work systems.

· EN 29614 Acoustics – Determination of sound power level of noise sources using sound intensity.

· EN 31 200 series acoustics. Noise emitted by machinery. Guideline for the preparation of test codes of engineering grade requiring noise measurements of the operator’s or bystander’s position.

· prEN 50 100 - 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – electrosensitive protective device. Specification for general requirements.

· prEN 50 100 - 2: 1992 Safety of machinery – particular requirements for an active optoelectric protective device.

· prEN 60 204 - 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – electrical equipment of machines. Part 1: General requirements.

· prEN 60 947-5- 1: 1992 Safety of machinery – Control circuit devices and switching elements. Electromechanical control circuit devices.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 355:

Ø Presidential Decree 19 March 1956, N. 303, Art. 20: “Defence of the air from pollution by harmful products”.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: finishing.

The last stage of the production cycle in the footwear the sector, performed laterally to the conveyor, consists of trimming and finishing of the finished shoe, to provide further aesthetic improvement before subsequent packaging for distribution on the market.

This includes the following operations:

· Dying edges soles and heel: application of paint manually or with a spray gun, also known as the operation of “colouring the shoe”;

· Scraping of sole: slight scraping of the sole in order to facilitate the adhesion of the colour and thus improve the quality of the product;

· Dying of sole: operation involving the manual application of natural wax;

· Polishing of sole: operation for finishing the sole using rotating brushing machines;

· Cleaning and washing of shoe: this operation is done manually using sponges or pieces of cloth soaked in solvents, gasoline or water passed on the surface of the shoe;

· Application of inner counter: the inner counter, already stamped, is spread with adhesive and inserted inside the shoe. The inner heel pieces are often self-adhesive;

· Finishing: this is an operation using shoe polish or finish which can be manually spread using brushes;

· Polishing of shoe: operation of spreading polish that can be conducted as an alternative to;

· Ironing of shoe: in this stage irons are used to spread the leather on the surface of the shoe. Bunsen burners are sometimes used for the same purpose, quickly passing the shoe through the open flame.

In two footwear plants in the survey, are footwear with rubber soles is manufactured; for these, the finishing operations consist in the cutting of the excess parts of the sole with special cutters.

There are 93 workers in the finishing operations (10.5% on the total used in the footwear sector), of whom 79 women (85%) and 14 men (15%).

Chapter2

§2. Equipment, machines and plant.

In the finishing stage the operators perform simple operations of dying, scraping and polishing of the shoe, using either machines or hand tools for spreading on the surface of the shoe those products designed to make the product more attractive.

The type of shoes and the material composing them determine the number and nature of finishing procedures.

Besides the machines described below, the following hand tools are used by personnel:

- Trimming knives;

- Sponges and rags;

- Brushes.

§2.1 Brushing machines.

These are brush or roll cleaning machines, operating with sanders or sand paper, designed to polish the surface of the shoe leather. The dust produced is particularly fine and mainly derive from the layer of paint applied in the previous operations. This dust is collected in removable bags attached to the machines.

§2.2 Irons.

The ironing of the surface of the shoe is conducted by using simple irons specially designed for the sector.

§2.3 Stamping machine

These are used to stamp trademarks, numbers and designs on soles, uppers and linings. These machines are similar to presses, with a press to which a stamping die is attached. The descent of the press can be controlled by an electric guide block or a pedal control.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

§3.1 Risks related to machines or equipment.

The accident risks are contact of the hands with parts of the machines while the shoe is brought up to the rotating parts.

Accidents are likewise often caused by the shoes themselves, propelled against the operator, again while the shoe is brought up to the rotating parts.

A possible risk, deriving from ironing operations using irons, is burning parts of the hands.

Similarly, there is the risk of burning in the open flames produced by the Bunsen burners through which the operators rapidly pass the shoes so that the leather can be flattened.

Results of observations:

25% of the risk assessment documents collected in the 20 firms show that:

· The moving parts of the machines involved in the work are not always completely insulated by design, construction and/or location.

The suggested measures regard the insulation, with suitable shields, of all the unprotected moving parts.

In particular, fixed protection to be situated at sufficient distance from the danger zone or protective devices preventing access to moving parts are recommended.

Where this is not possible, there must be danger signs; personnel must be provided with information and training.

10% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· The fixed protection, in case of opening, remain correctly secured to the machine;

· Devices for tuning motors on and off are not located outside the danger zone; using them involves extra risks or incorrect postures;

· There are no instruction manuals specifying how to safely perform the various operations on the machine: tuning, functioning, maintenance and cleaning;

· There is no mobile protection designed to eliminate the risk of flying materials.

20% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· The removal of the mobile protection is not always associated with mechanisms causing the stop and preventing the start-up of the machine. The improvement measures contained in the assessment documents include the need to provide all the mobile protection with micro safety switches which stop the machine or block the start-up, in case of opening of the protection;

· The on and off switches of motors and machines are not always clearly visible with the lack of clear labels or symbols enabling personnel to identify them;

25% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There are no clearly visible signs with the explicit prohibition to clean, oil, grease, repair or manually register the parts and elements of the machines while running;

5% of the risk assessment documents indicate that:

· There is no formal plan for preventive and periodical maintenance of all the machines;

· There is a risk of accidental contact with parts of machines or equipment;

· Machine axles protruding from their supports by over ¼ of their diameter are not adequately protected by shielding secured to parts of the machine which do not move;

· There is no mobile protection of machines;

· There is no adjustable protection limiting access in operating zones in work requiring operator intervention in their vicinity;

· Power supply cut-off and subsequent return does not trigger the automatic start-up of the machine.

§3.2 Solvents risk: finishing operations.

el Nel FFinishing involves various operations with products having the potential risk of exposure to solvents or other harmful substances. There follows a brief summary of the processed already described in Chapter 1:

Ø Cleaning and washing of the shoe: solvents or water are passed over the surface of the shoe;

Ø Dying edges soles and heel: application of paint by hand or with a spray gun;

Ø Finishing, polishing: this operation involves the use of dye, finishing or polish applied manually with brushes.

In the stage specific finishing products used can be classified as follows:

- Finish, paint, polish, wax, softeners, brighteners, dyes, etc.: these products are mainly based on synthetic dyes and synthetic resins in water-based emulsions or dissolved in solvents belonging to the groups described for the adhesives;

- Plain solvents for cleaning;

- Small amounts of adhesive in the operation of applying the inner counters inside the shoe.

Results of the survey regarding the composition of the products:

The products have been classified on the basis of the characteristics of use, distinguishing:

· Cleaning solvents/diluents;

· Finish, paint, polish, wax, softeners, brighteners, dyes, etc..

The nature of the liquid phase was then considered, distinguishing between:

1. Organic solvents;

2. Water or ammonia-based watery solutions.

During the survey the technical descriptions for 32 products used in the finishing stage have been examined (29 adhesives and 3 solvents /diluents for adhesives). On the basis of the classifications described above, the following distribution has been obtained:

- Total products of cleaning formed by mixtures of organic solvents: N. 21.

With regard to composition, these products have the following characteristics:

· None contain N-hexane with percentages over 3%;

· N. 10 contain isohexane with percentages varying between 10% and 85%;

· N. 2 are formed by solely by isohexane;

· N. 17 contain keytone and respectively: N. 2 are formed by solely by acetone and N. 11 with mainly acetone (percentages varying between 20% and 90%); N.3 with presence of 2-butanone used for the cleaning of rubber or plastic materials (percentages varying between 10% and 20%); N. 1 formed solely by 2-butanone; N. 3 with presence of methyl ethyl keytone (percentages up to 5%);

· N. 2 with presence of ethyl acetate (percentages up to 40%);

· N. 1 formed solely by ethyl alcohol;

· N. 2 contain 5% toluene;

· N. 2 contain mixtures of aliphatic, aromatic and terpenic hydrocarbons.

In other products the presence of hydrochloric acid (10%), di-chloro methane (under 1%) and tri-chloro ethylene (less than 2%), di-decil methyl ammonia (4.5 %) and iso-decanol etho-oxylate (6%) has been reported.

- Total cleaning products in water-based liquid: N. 3.

Products based on terpene (citrus peel extract) and surface active products.

- Total finishing, paint, polish, wax, softeners, brighteners, dyes, etc. in water-based liquid: N. 24.

These are products based on natural or synthetic wax (polyethylene or acrylics) containing additives such as emulsifiers, saponifier, antifermentation products and colouring.

- Total colouring and brightening for soles and heels in alcohol: N. 5.

With regard to composition, these products have the following characteristics:

· All contain ethyl alcohol (percentages from 20% to 50%);

· All contain isopropyl alcohol (percentages from 15% to 20%);

· Some contain methoxpropanol (3%), benzyl alcohol (3%), turpentine (10%) and di-hydroxy ethyl ether (3%).

In relation to the use of the products described above, the following considerations can be made.

1. The finishing stage is performed in all the firms surveyed using:

Solvent-based cleaning products.

Used in all the firms, they also include products used in the operations of cleaning brushes and equipment.

Colouring, dye, paint.

Used in 25% of the firms, they are sometimes used in spray application.

Finishing products.

Used in 20% of the firms surveyed, they mainly include colouring products in alcohol.

Softeners.

Used in 15% of the firms surveyed.

Mixed emulsions of natural and synthetic wax or water-based surface active products.

Used in 70% of the firms surveyed, before the stage of brushing the shoe.

Results of the survey regarding the use of less harmful products:

With regard to the replacement of high risk products with lower risk or risk free products, the following conclusions emerge:

- No use of products with the “Harmful product” symbol on the label, i.e. all the products observed contain mixtures of hexane isomers with a maximum of 5% of n-hexane (Ministry Decree 16/2/1993 - classification and regulation of the labelling of dangerous substances);

- Generalised use of products containing increasingly high percentages of isohexane to replace industrial hexane (containing n-hexane);

- Significant use of water-based products for the operations of dying and finishing;

- Moderate use of these products dispersed in water in the other operations (e.g. use of water-based paint for the soles);

- Acetone is the most commonly used cleaning solvent;

- Ethyl and isopropyl alcohol are the solvents most commonly used in dyes;

- No use of pigments containing chrome and lead;

- No use of products classified s "Xn" or " T " because they contain ethyl and methyl glycols

- No use of bi-adhesive tape;

- Limited use of products containing toluene;

- Presence in some products with tri-chloroethylene and di-chloromethane.

Results of the survey regarding risk containment measures:

For an evaluation of these aspects the following points were examined:

1) Presence/absence of aspiration hoods ;

2) suitability of aspiration hoods available;

3) suitability of adhesive containers.

§ Presence of aspiration hoods

The survey has shown considerable neglect with regard to the risk of exposure to organic solvents in this work stage. We observe the low number of aspiration systems with respect to the worststations where they would be necessary.

Aspiration systems were provided only in the firms in which spraying is used in painting the shoe (10% of the firms).

On the whole there were hoods in 25% of the firms and 20% of the finishing workstations with the use of products with organic solvents.

Aspiration in 75% of cases consists of cabins (situations using spray painting) and in 25% of cases of hoods with active carbon.

The employees, due to the precision required in the operation, are often required to have their face very close to the shoe, with a consequent higher risk of exposure to solvents.

The operations of dying, cleaning and polishing are often conducted in the same work area exploiting the same aspiration system, where present.

§ Suitability of existing aspiration hoods.

The hoods present in the finishing stage have the following properties:

· A water vapour spray cabine for spraying the paint in good conditions and designed to produce a high level of paint vapour elimination;

· two dry spray paint cabins kept in good conditions, with conveying of the emissions into atmosphere in compliance with existing regulations;

· A mobile hood with a small grilled surface, with aspiration from below and elimination of vapour using active carbon.

§ Use of suitable containers.

None of the firms surveyed have suitable containers designed to reduce evaporation of the solvent during application in the dying, washing or painting stage.

“Improvised” containers (glass jars, cans etc.) are used to enable several people to dip brushes, sponges or cloths used to apply the finishing products.

§ Use of individual protection devices

· The use of protective gloves for the skin by operatori is observed in 53% of the firms, while in the remaining 47% do not use this preventive measure.

· One firm only used protective cream for contact with cleaning solvents.

§3.3 Dust risk.

During the survey there was a widespread use of aspiration systems installed on the machines generating dust emissions such as brushing, scraping, polishing machines etc.

Aspiration systems with collection bags connected to the machine are present in 64% of the firms surveyed; in no case is the dust collected conveyed outside.

Regarding these situations the following has been observed:

· In 67% of the firms, the conditions of the aspiration system are good for correct maintenance and quality of the filter bags;

· In the remaining 33% of the firms, the conditions are mediocre due to the low quality of the filter bags and/or for insufficient maintenance.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents /number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (15 / 93*7) x 100 = 2.3 %

A.R. entire sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information collected in the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed, and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk, 93 workers employed in finishing operations, with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to that observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation of 7 years is 16.1% (A.R. entire sector = 19%)

For the period surveyed, the accident rate is 9.7% pefor the use of tools and 6.4% for the use of machines.

Table 4.1 below summarises the data derived from the survey regarding the machines or operation involved in the accidents.

Tab. 4.1: Harm recorded in the past 5 years in the finishing stage.

Material agent	N° accident victims	Average days of absence due to temporary inability
Manual tools	8	6.58 days of absence due to inability
Irons	1	/
Brushing machines	6	11.6 days of absence due to inability
TOTAL	15	DAYS OF ABSENCE 9.09

No occupational diseases due to risks related to finishing operations emerged.

Chapter 5

§5. Measures.

§5.1 Measures on machines.

The extensive or planned measures most often indicated in the assessment documents are based on the contents of Presidential Decree 459/96 (Machines Directive) and Legislative Decree 626/94.

§5.2 Measures adopted on the finishing operations.

For the containment of risk in the use of cleaning products containing organic solvents, measures were implemented on the basis of the regulations in Presidential Decree 303/56 and Circular of 29/03/1976 of the Ministry of Labour.

With regard to the risks related to the use of finishing products, the survey conducted has shown the implementation by the firms of the following measures:

· Installation of aspiration hoods for finishing operations in 25% of the firms surveyed;

· Use of gloves to protect the skin by operators in 53% of the firms;

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 94: Brushing machines, scraping machines, polishing and smoothing machines, grindstones

Cleaning and polishing machines of the tape, drum, roll or disk type operating with sandpaper or other abrasive material must have the abrasive part not used in the operation protected against accidental contact.

Ø Presidential Decree 19 March 1956, N. 303, Art. 20:

In processing involving gas or vapour which is unbreathable, toxic or inflammable, and in those normally producing odours or smoke of any type, the employers must adopt measures designed to prevent or reduce as far as possible their production and spreading.

Aspiration of the gas, vapour and odours must take place, as far as possible, immediatally near the place where they are produced.

Any work equipment involving dangers due to emission of gas, vapour, liquids or dust, must be equipped with appropriate retention or extraction devices near the source of these dangers.

Ø Law 303/1956 and Circular 29/03/1976 N. 256 (Prevention of polynevritis from adhesives – special vigiliance) of the Ministry of Labour:

Work stations where adhesives and paint dissolved in organic solvents are used must be equipped with suitable local mechanical aspiration systems.

In particular:

- The conveyor must be shielded a tunnel with panels of transparent material, if possible sliding, and equipped inside with lower aspiration vents and connected with a central system dispersing the fumes outside the plant. The length of the tunnel must be sufficient to guarantee the drying of the adhesive before the pieces leave the conveyor.

The surface of the worktable must not be covered by boards or similar objects making the aspiration inefficient.

Cementing machines must have the aspiration system attached.

- Similarly, the worktables where organic solvents are used must be equipped with local aspiration like the cementing lines.

- Maintenance of the workstations with aspiration: the worktable must be kept free from any deposits formed in order to ensure efficient aspiration.

- Containers of glue or other harmful products: the containers used must ensure maximum limitation of the evaporation area, e.g. with gooseneck dispensers. In the presence of adhesives with two components, where dispensers cannot be used, containers with a cover and minimum evaporating surface are recommended. Containers must have the symbols and labels required by Art. 18 of Presidential Decree 303/1956.

- Containers of glue and solvents not in current use must be kept closed.

- Harmful raw materials being processed must not be accumulated in work rooms in amounts exceeding those necessary for processing.

- Any skin contact with these materials must be avoided, and the workers supplied with suitable personal protection devices.

- Ventilation of production rooms: suitable ventilation must be maintained with fresh air intake from a zone without pollution, without recycling.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 355: “Recipients”.

Recipients for storing dangerous or harmful materials or products, in order to make sure that the nature and risk of the contents is known, must bear the labels and indications required for each of them under the laws governing these substances.

This obligation applied to all materials and products which are inflammable, explosive, corrosive, with harmful temperatures, asphyxiating, irritating, toxic and infectious, cutting or piercing.

Chapter 1

§1. Work stage: packaging and storage.

Once the processing of the shoe is completed, we go on to the stage of boxing, storage and loading for subsequent sale.

Packaging is generally conducted at the end of the working week and is undertaken by personnel also involved in finishing.

The operation consists in placing the pair of shoes in specific boxes made available by chosen suppliers; the quality of the packaged product naturally determines the level of quality of the packaging.

After packaging, the boxes, generally in groups of six, are placed in “storage areas”, generally found in poorly organised areas of production departments.

Chapter 2

§2. Equipment, machines and plant.

§2.1 Stamping machine for boxes.

Stamps the label showing the model of the shoe, the quality of the fabrics used and the size of the shoe.

This operation is not always conducted, since the alternative is often the use of self-adhesive labels, manual stamps or, in firms with low production, simple manual writing.

§2.2 Lifting or transport devices.

In most of the firms, in particular in the smaller ones, the loading and unloading of goods in performed manually. The workers usually lift a maximum number of six boxes.

Sometimes, in order to make the operations of transferring the packaged goods better and faster, the workers use electric forklifts or, more simply, trolleys.

Chapter 3

§3. Risk factor.

§3.1 Handling of loads.

Chronic and degenerative diseases of the spinal column which may occur in the footwear sector as a result of the mistaken handling of loads in storage stage.

§3.2 Stamping machines.

The most frequent risk involved in the use of this machine is injury to fingers or hands by crushing. The operator is hurt due to the accidental turning on of the control pedal and the subsequent descent of the stamping block.

Results of observations on risks related to handling of the loads:

Employees frequently report lumbago due to excessive strain on the spinal column.

It has been observed that:

- Loading and unloading operations are performed manually in 29% of cases; with the help of a trolley in 45%, with the help of an electric forklift in 8.5 % and with the help of both means in the remaining percentage, i.e. 17.5%.

- In 70% of cases the footwear boxes are stacked on the floor for subsequent loading; in 20% of cases, the firms have organised shelves for placing the goods before loading.

The assessment documents show that:

- In 25% of the firms surveyed the workers have not received information and training on risks due to handling of loads;

- In 25% of cases the shelves where goods are placed are not secured to the walls, with the risk of falling on and hitting personnel;

- In 15% of the firms there are no specially equipped storage areas with distinct and signposted separation of material.

Results of observations on risks related to machines:

The survey conducted has shown that:

- 45% of the firms use the stamping machine. This machine is equipped with a pedal shield to prevent accidental turning on in 67% of cases; in the remaining cases manual stamping is used.

Chapter 4

§4. Expected harm.

Being unable to correctly calculate the annual accident rate (A.R.), an estimate has been made using the following formula:

A.R. = (number of accidents /number of persons exposed to risk *year) x 100

= (3 / 22*7) x 100 = 1.94 %

A.R. entire sector = 2.71%

where the numerator represents the absolute number of accidents in the period 1992–1998, on the basis of the information collected in the accident registers of the 20 firms surveyed, and the denominator is the number of workers exposed to this risk, 22 workers employed in storage operations, with the approximation that the number of workers in the reference years 92-98 is constant and equal to that observed in 1998.

The occurrence rate for the entire period of observation of 7 years is 13.6 % (A.R. entire sector = 19%)

No accidents have been recorded regarding the machines, but the total events refers to the handling of loads (Table 4.1 shows accidents by type of event and not the material agent).

Tab. 4.1: Harm recorded in the past 5 years in the stage of storage and packaging.

Type of event	N° accident victims	Average days of absence per temporary inability
Lifting with strain	3	14 days of absence
Stamping machine	0	/
TOTAL	3	14 DAYS OF ABSENCE

No occupational diseases due to risks related to storage operations emerged.

Chapter 5

§5. Measures.

§5.1 Good technical standards in the loading and unloading stage.

There follow the measures most often indicated in the risk assessment documents regarding good technical standards:

· The areas provided must be sufficiently large for storage, clearly distinguished and signposted, the floor must be resistant, horizontal and homogeneous.

· If storage takes place by the piling of the materials on top of each other:

- The height of the pile must be sufficient to remain stable;

- The form and the characteristics of resistance of the materials must allow for piling.

· If pallets are used in storage:

- The pallets must be in a good state of conservation;

- The loads must be in a good state of conservation;

- The loads must be secure and stable on the pallets;

- Measures must be adopted to avoid direct piling of already loaded pallets;

- There must be a maximum loading limit for each pallet.

· If piling uses supports:

- The characteristics of the supports must facilitate the storage and use of the piled materials;

- The ends of linear elements stored horizontally must be protected.

· If storage takes place on shelves:

- The shelves must be stable;

- The shelves must be protected frontally against possible shock;

- The shelves must have a shape and resistance characteristics suited to the materials being stored.

Results of observations:

With regard to the measures adopted to prevent accidents related to handling of loads manually or with machines, it has been observed that:

· In 25% of the firms surveyed the risk from these operations is not mentioned;

· In 25% of the firms handling is undertaken with the help of mechanical devices for weights over 30 Kg if carried by men and 20 Kg if carried by women

· In 5% of cases a pause of 15’ every 120’ of continuous work is provided;

· In 15% of the firms the shelves are secured to the walls or the state of non-use is indicated.

Chapter 6

§6. Legislative references.

Ø Legislative Decree 19 September 1994, N. 626, capo V: Manual handling of loads.

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art.78 ”.

General or specific control pedals of the machines, except those for stopping only, must be protected with a shield above and laterally, or be equipped with another device which, while allowing easy operation, prevents any accidental turning on of the control pedal.

Ref.: Stamping machine

Ø Presidential Decree 27 April 1955, N. 547, Art. 168: “Means and equipment for lifting and handling”.

The means of lifting and transport must be appropriate regarding the safety, type, shape and volume of the loads to be lifted and handled, as well as the conditions of use with particular regard to the start-up and stopping stage.